Notes to "Three Deer"

§1. Three Deer in Mexico and the Far North.

¹ Yuma: William B. Gibbon, "Asiatic Parallels in North American Star Lore: Milky Way, Pleiades, Orion," Journal of American Folklore, 77, #305 (1964): 236-250 [240, 244]. Cahuilla, Gros Ventre: Gibbon, "Asiatic Parallels in North American Star Lore: Milky Way, Pleiades, Orion," 244. Yuri Berezkin, The Cosmic Hunt: Variants of a Siberian - North-American Myth, Folklore 31 (2006): 79-100 [84-86].
² Buryat, Altai: Gibbon, "Asiatic Parallels in North American Star Lore: Milky Way, Pleiades, Orion," 244-245. India, California, and the Southwestern United States: David H. Kelley and Eugene F. Milone, Exploring Ancient Skies: A Survey of Ancient and Cultural Astronomy, 2 ed. (New York: Springer Science & Business Media, Feb 16, 2011) 499a. Northern and central Mexican highlands, and possibly the Pawnee: Von Del Chamberlain, When Stars Came Down to Earth: Cosmology of the Skidi Pawnee Indians of North America (Los Altos: Ballena Press, 1982) 136-137, 227, 244; Kelley and Milone, Exploring Ancient Skies, 423.
³ Francis La Flesche, A Dictionary of the Osage Language, Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 109 (Washington, D. C.: United States Printing Office, 1932) 138b, s. v. ṭa thabthiⁿ; 301, s. v. "Orion's Belt." Francis La Flesche, The Osage Tribe: Two Versions of the Child-Naming Rite, Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology, 43d Annual Report (Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1928) 74.
⁴ Robert L. Hall, An Archaeology of the Soul: North American Indian Belief and Ritual (Urbana & Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1997) 193 nt 27.
⁵ Anthony F. Aveni, Skywatchers (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2001) 141, Table 15; 143 fig. 57. This diagram shows how the small wheel of coefficients revolves around the large wheel of day signs in the Tonalpohualli calendar.

⁶ Ronald Goodman, Lakota Star Knowledge: Studies in Lakota Stellar Theology (Rosebud Sioux Reservation: Siñte Gleska University, 1992) 54, where Buechel's MS page is reproduced. Lakota Dictionary, Lakota-English / English-Lakota. New Comprehensive Edition. Compiled and edited by Eugene Buechel and Paul Manhart (Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 2002) 303, s. v. Tayamni. In the older dictionary of Riggs, tayamni is also said to mean "three pairs" in the Dakota dialect. Stephen R. Riggs, A Dakota-English Dictionary (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1992 [1890]) s. v. tawáŋji.
⁷ Goodman, Lakota Star Knowledge, 8.
⁸ Riggs, A Dakota-English Dictionary, s. v. ta. John P. Williamson, An English-Dakota Dictionary (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society, 1992 [1902]) 110a, s. v. "moose."
⁹ See in Riggs, A Dakota-English Dictionary, ss. vv. ta, "the moose," tahá, "a deer-skin," tahákalala, "a woman's buckskin dress," Tahéćapśuŋwi, "the moon in which deer shed their horns," tahíŋ, "a buffalo's or deer's hair," táḣiŋća, "the common deer, Cervus capreolus," takáŋ, "the sinew taken from the back of the deer and buffalo," Takíyuḣawi, "the moon when the deer copulate," tamtóka, "the male of the common deer, a buck," tápa, "a deer's head," tapáġa, "the diaphragm of deer, etc.," taśáka, "the hoofs or nails of deer." Williamson, An English-Dakota Dictionary, ss. vv. "deer," "moose."
¹⁰ Buechel and Manhart, Lakota Dictionary, 303, s. v. Tayamni. Goodman, Lakota Star Knowledge, 54.
¹¹ La Flesche, A Dictionary of the Osage Language, 138a, s. v. Ṭa-pa (where it is mentioned that the Omaha have the same term for the Pleiades); 307a, s. v. "Pleiades."
¹² Mary Carolyn Marino, A Dictionary of Winnebago: An Analysis and Reference Grammar of the Radin Lexical File (Ph.D. Thesis, University of California, Berkeley, December 14, 1968 [69-14,947]) 156, s. v. cįtc; 176, s. v. tca.
¹³ Ray A. Williamson, Living the Sky: The Cosmos of the American Indians (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1984) 235.
¹⁴ James R. Murie, Ceremonies of the Pawnee. Studies in the Anthropology of North American Indians. Ed. Douglas R. Parks (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press for the American Indian Studies Research Institute, Indiana University, 1989) 41.
¹⁷ Annals of Cuauhtitlan, 2.14.
^17.0 w
^17.1 The Annals of Cuauhtitlan, 2:5-52. The Legend of the Suns, 75:3-43, 77:27-78:22. History of the Mexicans as Told by Their Paintings, 619-622.
¹⁹ Codex Telleriano Remensis, 12v. Codex Borgia, 71 (at the base of Tonatiuh's dias). Leyenda de los Soles, 77:27. Sahagún, Florentine Codex, Bk. 2, Ch. 19 (35). Fray Diego Durán, Book of the Gods and Rites and The Ancient Calendar, trs., edd. Fernando Horcasitas and Doris Heyden (Norman: University of Oklahoma, 1971) 181-182. Serna, Manual de Ministros de Indios, Ch. 6, §4 (316), s. v. Ollin. Seler, Collected Works, 1:131b-132a (I.441), 2:188 (III.350). Caso, "Nombres calendáricos de los dioses," 93, s. v. 4. Ollin.
^19.1 All astronomical reconstructions are based on Starry Night Pro Plus 6.3 software, set at the coordinates of the ruins of Tula.
^19.2 For the Winter Solstice as the Birthday of the Sun, see Sir James Frazer, The New Golden Bough, ed. Theodor H. Gaster (New York: Criterion Books, 1964 [1959]) §555, pp. 721-722.
^19.3 These dates fall about 42 years apart (15,340.5 days).

It is conceivable that counts beginning in the years +600, 642, and 684 could produce a "Four Motion" calendar name for the Sun prior to the historically known count of 726. The Rabbit years all have veintenas that begin with the day sign Water, whereas the Flint years have the Rain day sign in its place. For a fuller tabulation, see this.
^19.4 Leyenda de los Soles, 78:1. Sahagún, Florentine Codex, Bk. 7, Ch. 2 (7-8).
^19.5 Fray Bernardino de Sahagún, Primeros Memoriales. Paleography of Nahuatl Text and English Translation by Thelma D. Sullivan. Completed and Revised, with Additions, by Henry B. Nicholson, Arthur J. O. Anderson, Charles E. Dibble, Eloise Quiñones Keber, and Wayne Ruwet (University of Oklahoma Press, 1997) 124.
²⁰ Annals of Cuauhtitlan, 2:49.
²¹ The NASA Eclipse Website, Javascript Lunar Eclipse Explorer > North America, Central America & Caribbean, developed by Chris O'Byrne and Fred Espenak.
²² "The rain clouds on [Codex Borgia] pages 37-38 symbolize the onset of the seasonal rains ... [which] corresponds to June through mid-July, when heavy rains fall in Central Mexico." Susan Milbrath, Heaven and Earth in Ancient Mexico: Astronomy and Seasonal Cycles in the Codex Borgia. The Linda Schele Series in Maya and Pre-Columbian Studies (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2013) 88a.
²³ Milbrath, Heaven and Earth in Ancient Mexico, 75b.
²⁴ Sahagún, Bk. 1, Ch. 14 (31-32). Andrews and Hassig say that they were identical in classical times. Hernando Ruiz de Alarcón, Treatise on the heathen superstitions that today live among the Indians native to this New Spain, edd. James Richard Andrews and Ross Hassig. Volume 164 of Civilization of the American Indian series (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999 [1629]) 230, s. v. Horcasitas and Heyden say that Macuilxochitl is a calendar name for Xochipilli, in Durán, Book of the Gods and Rites and The Ancient Calendar, 175, nt. 3.
²⁵ The following view them as independent but overlapping gods: Seler, Collected Works, 3:297a (III.1099); Seler's Commentary on Codex Borgia, 1:134, 1:148. Nowotny, Tlacuilolli: Style and Contents of the Mexican Pictorial Manuscripts with a Catalog of the Borgia Group, 358, s. v. Xochipilli. Miller and Taube, An Illustrated Dictionary of the Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya, 108a, s. v. "Macuilxochitl." Krickeberg sees Maculxochitl as a Nebenform of Xochipilli. Walter Krickeberg, "Das mittelamerikanische Ballspiel und seine religiöse Symbolik," Paideuma, 3, ##3/5 (October, 1948): 118-190 [134]. Others use hyphenation (Macuilxochitl-Xochipilli): Walter Lehmann, "Die fünf im Kindbett gestorbenen Frauen des Westens und die fünf Götter des Südens in der mexikanischen Mythologie," Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, 37, #6 (1905): 848-871 [867-868].
²⁶ Seler's Commentary in Codex Borgia, 1:20-21, 1:148-149; to Tlatlauhqui Tezcatlipoca, 1:124, 1:148, 1:150, 2:100. Olivier observes, "... a deity with the features of Tezcatlipoca-Itztlacoliuhqui-Macuilxochitl appears in the Codex Borgia (50), carrying a spear thrower and offering a bleeding heart in the direction of a temple bearing the glyph of the moon." Olivier, Mockeries and Metamorphoses of an Aztec God, 171b and 242b.
²⁷ Walter Krickeberg, "Bauform und Weltbild im alten Mexico," 4 (1950): 295-333 [324]. Milbrath, Heaven and Earth in Ancient Mexico, 67a, 75b, 88b (cp. Codex Borgia, 39, which shows a red haired god with floral banners).
²⁸ Seler's Commentary in Codex Borgia, 1:14, 1:205.
²⁹ Sahagún, Bk. 1, Ch. 14 (14).
³⁰ Karl Anton Nowotny, Tlacuilolli: Style and Contents of the Mexican Pictorial Manuscripts with a Catalog of the Borgia Group (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2005) 47, Plate 49 B.
³¹ "Ayia, iao suchitl icaca umpa njuitza tlamacacecatl tlamocoioaleua ..." Sahagún, Bk. 2, Appendix, "Song of Macuilxochitl" (214). Seler, Collected Works, 3:296-297a (III.1096-1098), "XIX. Macuilxochitl Icuic. Song of the God of Music and Gaming." Cf. Sullivan, "red dusk," Fray Bernardino de Sahagún, Primeros Memoriales. Paleography of Nahuatl Text and English Translation by Thelma D. Sullivan. Completed and Revised, with Additions, by Henry B. Nicholson, Arthur J. O. Anderson, Charles E. Dibble, Eloise Quiñones Keber, and Wayne Ruwet (University of Oklahoma Press, 1997) 152.
³² Seler, Collected Works, 3:261b (III.1024), and 3:263a (III.1029).
³³ Seler, Collected Works, 3:119a (III.777). The same is said of the quetzalcocoxtli in reference to Xochipilli, Sahagún, Primeros Memoriales, fol. 277r (Sullivan, 139).
³⁴ "ye cuica ya ye quetzalcoxcux a yoaltica." Sahagún, Primeros Memoriales, fol. 277r (Sullivan, 139).
³⁵ Cecelia F. Klein, "The Identity of the Central Deity on the Aztec Calendar Stone," The Art Bulletin, 58, #1 (March, 1976): 1-12 [3]. She makes rather sweeping identities: "This deity, who represented the dead sun at night in the body of the female earth monster, was variously known as Xochipilli, "Prince of Flowers," Piltzintecuhtli, "Lord of Princes," Yoaltonatiuh, "Night Sun," Tlalchitonatiuh or Ollintonatiuh, "Earth Sun," and Yohualtecuhtli, the "Lord of the Night."
³⁶ Klein, "The Identity of the Central Deity on the Aztec Calendar Stone," 4.
³⁷ Ángel María Garibay Kintana, Teogonía e historia de los mexicanos (México, Editorial Porrúa, 1965) VII.156 (109).
³⁸ Seler, Collected Works, 3:282b (III.1069) and 3:265 (III.1035).
³⁹ Klein, "The Identity of the Central Deity on the Aztec Calendar Stone," 5-7.
⁴⁰ Durán, 434-435. Miller and Taube, An Illustrated Dictionary of the Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya, 190a, s. v. Xochipilli.
^40.1 Sahagún, cf., Bk. 4, Ch. 19 (70).
⁴¹ At Xochicalco the equinox took place at 20:38:31 hours, as determined by Starry Night Pro Plus 6.3 software, set at coordinates 18° 48′ 14″ N 99° 17′ 45.3″ W (18.80389° N 99.295917° W). At Cacaxtla this took place at 20:38:27 hours, set at the coordinates of the ruins of Cacaxtla (19° 14′ 35″ N 98° 20′ 24″ W = 19.24313° N 98.34000° W).
⁴² A lengthy compilation of such calendar names is found in Alfonso Caso, "Nombres calendáricos de los dioses," El México antiguo, 9 (1959): 77-100.

§2. The Identity of Three Deer.

¹ Hall, An Archaeology of the Soul, 193 nt 27.
^2
3 Claudia Brittenham, "Style and Substance, or Why the Cacaxtla Paintings Were Buried," Anthropology and Aesthetics, #55/56 (Spring - Autumn, 2009): 135-155 [135a].
⁴ Ellen T. Baird, "Stars and War at Cacaxtla," in Mesoamerica After the Decline of Teotihuacan, A.D. 700-900, ed. Richard A. Diehl, Janet Catherine Berlo (Washington: Dumbarton Oaks, 1989) 105-122 [107, Fig. 3b].
⁵ Codex Ferjérváry-Mayer 26.
⁶ Codices Nuttall 43 [48], 44 [49], 45 [50], 48 [53], 51 [56]; Vaticanus B 67, 89.
⁷ Codex Ferjérváry-Mayer 13, 36.
⁸ Codex Ferjérváry-Mayer 20.
⁹ For a discussion of variations in these signs, see Thomas Talbot Waterman, The Delineation of the Day-signs in the Aztec Manuscripts, University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology, 11, #6 (March 8, 1916): 297-398 [351-353]. Seler, Collected Works, 1:123 = Eduard Seler, Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen Sprach und Alterthumskunde (Berlin: A. Asher & Co., 1902) I.425. For Cacaxtla, see Warrior 3 and 29, identified as the same Captain by the antler variant of the Deer day sign glyph. Mesoamerica After the Decline of Teotihuacan, A.D. 700-900, ed. Richard A. Diehl, Janet Catherine Berlo (Washington: Dumbarton Oaks, 1989) in the fold-out between pages 8 and 9. Reproduced in John B. Carlson, "Venus-Regulated Warfare and Ritual Sacrifice in Mesoamerica," in Astronomies and Cultures, ed. Clive L. N. Ruggles and Nicholas J. Saunders (Niwot: University Press of Colorado, 1993) 202-252 [216, Figs. 8.5a,b]; Baird, "Stars and War at Cacaxtla," 108, Figs. 6 and 7.
¹⁰ "Besides gods L and M, a few quite isolated black figures occur in the Codex Troano, who, apparently, are identical with neither of these two deities, but are evidently of slight importance and perhaps are only variants of other deities. Similar figures of black deities are found in the Codex Tro. 23, 24, and 25 (perhaps this is a black variant of B as god of the storm?) and on 21*^c we twice see a black form with the aged face and the solitary tooth in the under jaw (perhaps only a variant of M). In the Codex Cortesianus and in the Dresden manuscript no other black deities occur, but in the Paris manuscript a black deity seems to be pictured once (p. 21, bottom)." Paul Schellhas, "Representation of Deities of the Maya Manuscripts," 2d ed., revised. Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, 4, #1 (December, 1904): 3-47 [37].

Among the Tzendal Maya, in addition to Ek’ Chuah, there is a second black deity called Hicalahau [Xical Ahau], “Black King.” The Ninth Pastroal Letter of Don Francesco Núñez de la Vega, from Ciudad Real, dated May 24, 1698, quoted in Daniel Garrison Brinton, Nagualism: A Study in Native American Folk-lore and History (Philadelphia: MacCalla & Co., 1894) 21. This may be the same god referenced by Thomas Gage, A New Survey of the West-Indies: Or, The Engliſh American his Travel by Sea and Land (London: A. Clark, 1677) 389, 393. Brinton, Nagualism, 39. Schellhas, "Representation of Deities of the Maya Manuscripts," 37.
¹¹ Karl A. Taube, The Major Gods of Ancient Yucatan, Volume 32 of Dumbarton Oaks Pre-Columbian Art and Archaeology Studies Series (Washington: Dumbarton Oaks, 1992) 79b.
¹² Schellhas, "Representation of Deities of the Maya Manuscripts," 34-35. Taube, The Major Gods of Ancient Yucatan, 79b-88.
¹³ Schellhas, "Representation of Deities of the Maya Manuscripts," 34. Taube, The Major Gods of Ancient Yucatan, 79b. Miller and Taube, An Illustrated Dictionary of the Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya, 147a, s. v. "Schellhas gods."
¹⁴ Schellhas, "Representation of Deities of the Maya Manuscripts," 34. Taube, The Major Gods of Ancient Yucatan, 79b. Miller and Taube, An Illustrated Dictionary of the Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya, 147a, s. v. "Schellhas gods."
¹⁵ Taube, The Major Gods of Ancient Yucatan, 81a, and 88a, where the jaguar is described as his "avatar." Miller and Taube, An Illustrated Dictionary of the Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya, 147a, s. v. "Schellhas gods."
¹⁶ John Eric S. Thompson, Maya Hieroglyphic Writing: Introduction (Washington: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1950) 114-115, 145. Taube, The Major Gods of Ancient Yucatan, 79b; 80, Figs. 38a-b; 81b, 84-85. Miller and Taube, An Illustrated Dictionary of the Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya, 147a, s. v. "Schellhas gods."
¹⁷ Taube, The Major Gods of Ancient Yucatan, 79b-81a. Miller and Taube, An Illustrated Dictionary of the Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya, 147a, s. v. "Schellhas gods."
¹⁸ Taube, The Major Gods of Ancient Yucatan, 81, 88b. Miller and Taube, An Illustrated Dictionary of the Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya, 147a, s. v. "Schellhas gods."
¹⁹ Portrayed in a mural flanking a staircase at El Templo Rojo. See The Linda Schele Drawing Collection, #7314, dated to the Terminal Classic. Discussed in Taube, The Major Gods of Ancient Yucatan, 85b. Miller and Taube, An Illustrated Dictionary of the Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya, 147a, s. v. "Schellhas gods."
²⁰ Schellhas, "Representation of Deities of the Maya Manuscripts," 36. For the trumpline, vide Codex Tro-Cortesianus 15^b, 19 (lower left), 38^b, 38^c, 50^a, 51^a, 51^b, 55, 81^a, 82^a, 83^a, 88^a, 95^b, and in these where it is connected to his pack: 52^a, 53^a, 53^b, 54, 91^a. For God M generally, see Taube, The Major Gods of Ancient Yucatan, 88b-92a.
²¹ Schellhas, "Representation of Deities of the Maya Manuscripts," 35 (under God L), and 36. Taube, The Major Gods of Ancient Yucatan, 88b-90a.
²² Miller and Taube, An Illustrated Dictionary of the Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya, 148a, s. v. "Schellhas gods" ("ek [is] the Mayan word for black"); also said in Taube, The Major Gods of Ancient Yucatan, 88b. For God M portrayed with scorpion attributes, see Codex Tro-Cortesianus 31^a, 82^a, 83^a, 84^a; and 79^a where a two-headed God M has a scorpion tail whose end is tied to a bound prisoner, to which cf. 80^a.
²³ Miller and Taube, An Illustrated Dictionary of the Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya, 148a, s. v. "Schellhas gods."
²⁴ Michael D. Coe, The Maya Scribe and His World (New York: The Grolier Club, 1973) 14.
²⁵ Cyrus Thomas, Aids to the Study of Maya Codices, Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology (Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1888) 358.
²⁶ Taube, The Major Gods of Ancient Yucatan, 90b.
²⁷ Miller and Taube, An Illustrated Dictionary of the Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya, 148a, s. v. "Schellhas gods." Taube suggests at one point that he is "probably derived from Yacatecuhtli." Taube, The Major Gods of Ancient Yucatan, 88b. Scott O'Mack, "Yacateuctli and Ehecatl-Quetzalcoatl: Earth-Divers in Aztec Central Mexico," Ethnohistory, 38, #1 (Winter, 1991): 1-33 [25].
²⁸ Carl Taube, Deities of the Ancient Maya. A Guide for the Third Maya at the Playa Workshop, 2009 (Washington: Reiko Ishihara, Dembarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 2009) 26.
²⁹ Robelo, Diccionario, 523a, s. v. Yacahuitztli.
³⁰ Taube, The Major Gods of Ancient Yucatan, 90a.
³¹ Taube, The Major Gods of Ancient Yucatan, 80, Fig. 38b; 82, Fig. 39b; 83, Fig. 40e; 90b, 92a.
³² Taube, The Major Gods of Ancient Yucatan, 90b; 91 Fig. 45.
³³ Thompson, "Merchant Gods of Middle America," 168, nt. 1. The oyoualli are small bells worn by warriors, usually on the legs. John Bierhorst, A Nahuatl-English Dictionary and Concordance to the Cantares Mexicanos: With an Analytic Transcription and Grammatical Notes (Poalo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1985) 254, s. v. oyohualli. The War Spirit of the Hocągara, Turtle, is also said to wear jingles on his leggings.
³⁴ The Codex Tro-Cortesianus 32^a shows a charging God L in the outfit of a warrior. Taube, The Major Gods of Ancient Yucatan, 79b.
³⁵ Eduard Seler, Mexican Picture Writings of Alexander von Humboldt, trs. Charles P. Bowditch. Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 28 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1904) 162-163.
³⁶ Spranz, Los Dioses en los Códices Mexicanos del Grupo Borgia, 160, Fig. 455.
³⁷ Spranz, Los Dioses en los Códices Mexicanos del Grupo Borgia, 148-149, Fig. 401; 450-451, Fig. 1707. Cf. Codex Laud, 6.
³⁸ Spranz, Los Dioses en los Códices Mexicanos del Grupo Borgia, 148-150, Fig. 403a; 450-451, Fig. 1706.
³⁹ Thompson, "Merchant Gods of Middle America," 160 (in Sahagún's list as Nacxit, and as the object of a cult in Cholula). Boone, Cycles of Time and Meaning in the Mexican Books of Fate, 142a.
⁴⁰ Spranz, Los Dioses en los Códices Mexicanos del Grupo Borgia, 450-451, Fig. 1708, where it is described as a, "stylus of bone and manguey spine used as an instrument of penance which is worn on the head."
⁴¹ See the section entitled, "Las pinturas faciales bicolores divididas verticalmente," in Spranz, Los Dioses en los Códices Mexicanos del Grupo Borgia, 139-140.
⁴² If the red rectangle behind his eye is not part of his head gear but a patch of facial paint, then it does have a lone parallel in Tonacatecuhtli in Borgia 60. Spranz, Los Dioses en los Códices Mexicanos del Grupo Borgia, 295-296, Fig. 971.
⁴³ Spranz, Los Dioses en los Códices Mexicanos del Grupo Borgia, 445, #2. Boone, Cycles of Time and Meaning in the Mexican Books of Fate, 70b-72 (Figs. 37, 38).
⁴⁴ Thompson, "Merchant Gods of Middle America," 161 Table, ℓ 3.
⁴⁵ Flowering plants on back: Borgia 55, Fejérváry-Mayer 31, 36; quetzal on or beneath his pack: Borgia 55, Fejérváry-Mayer 39; corral snake: Laud 5; bird terminal of staff or fan: Borgia 55, Fejérváry-Mayer 31, Laud 5; beard around lips and mouth: Fejérváry-Mayer 36, Laud 5; Pinocchio nose: Fejérváry-Mayer 36; blue bodies with red on face: Borgia 55, Fejérváry-Mayer 31, 36, 39.
⁴⁶ Boone, Cycles of Time and Meaning in the Mexican Books of Fate, 71a. "... Yacatecuhtli, the merchant deity ... bears considerable resemblance to Quetzalcoatl." Henry B. Nicholson, Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl: The Once and Future Lord of the Toltecs (Boulder: The University Press of Colorado, 2001) 283-284.
⁴⁷ Thompson, "Merchant Gods of Middle America," 165; 163, Fig. 1m (= Codex Ferjérváry-Mayer 39, cf. 31, upper left).
⁴⁸ Taube, The Major Gods of Ancient Yucatan, 85, 88.
⁴⁹ Here is a table of average rainfall in millimeters for various locales in central Mexico taken from WorldClimate, ss. vv. The data for Tlaxcala comes from World Weather Online; Teotihuacán and Tula from Climate-Data.org. The dry season is indicated by a yellow background.

As can be seen, there is a short period of transition, here marked in the color aquamarine. Cacaxtla is near Tlaxcala, and Xochicalco is near Cuernavaca.
⁵⁰ Taube, The Major Gods of Ancient Yucatan, 79b, 81b. The word moan in Yucatec means, "cloudy, drizzle." The moan owl is also associated with the rain god Chac (cp. Dresden Codex 38^c). Thompson, Maya Hieroglyphic Writing, 49, 115, 145a, 275a.
⁵¹ This god is identified as Yacatecuhtli by Thompson, "Merchant Gods of Middle America," 162.
²¹ A
²² A
²³ A
²⁴ A

§3. Mamalhuaztli and the Gods of the Cingulum.

¹ Cecilio A. Robelo, Diccionario de Mitología Nahoa, Anales del Museo Nacional de México, Vol. 2, ##7-8 (1905), 347-356, Aacatl - Año bisiesto; #9 (1905), 357-376, Año bisiesto - Borrachos; ##11-12 (1905), 517-548, Cacuancalli - Ce Calli; Vol. 3 (1906), 97-116, Ce Calli - Cihuapipiltin; 193-196, Cihuapipiltin - Cipactli; 237-292, Cipactli - Chicome tochtli; 479-484, Chicome tochtli - Chicomoztoc; Vol. 4 (1907), 24-96, Chicomoztoc - Iztacmixcoatl; 119-224, Iztacmixcoatl - Nemontemi; 328-336, Nemontemi - Ochpaniztli; Vol. 5 (1908), 1-552, Ochpaniztli - Zacatontli; Supplement, 553, Abusiones - Teotl [523a, s. v. Yacahuitztli].
² 1. Mamalhuaztli. Ya iquac valneci, valmotema tlenamacoya. tlatotoniloya. yc mitoaya, ovalhuetz in yoaltecutli, in yacauiztli: quen vetziz in youalli quen tlathuiz. Sahagún, Florentine Codex, Bk 7, Ch 3 (7:11). Seler, it should be noted, translates this as, "When it rose in the east they burned incense and said: Oualuetz in youaltecutli in yacauiztli: Quen uetziz in youalli, quen tlathuiz, 'The lord of the night is come, the pointed staff. How will the night end? How will the morning dawn?'" Eduard Seler, "Venus Period in the Picture Writings of the Borgian Codex Group," Mexican and Central American Antiquities, Calendar Systems, and History, ed. Charles P. Bowditch. Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 28 (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1904) 355-391 [357]. However, the Spanish text has "Yoaltecutli y Yacauiztli," and a later passage in Sahagun makes it clear that both are deities.
³ Hazia esta gente particular reuerencia y particulares sacrificios a los mastelexos del cielo q̃ andã cerca de las cabrillas que es en el signo del toro. hazian estos sacrificios y cerimonias qñ nueuamente parecia por el oriente despues de la puesta del sol. Despues de auer ofrecidole encienso, dezian ya salido youaltecutli y yacauiztli, que acontecera esta noche o que fin abra la noche prospero o aduerso. Tres vezes ofrecian encienso y deue ser porque ellas son tres estrellas. Sahagún, Florentine Codex, Bk 7, Ch 3 (7:60).
⁴ Dibble ...
⁵ Francisco del Paso y Troncoso, "Ensayo sobre los símbolos cronográficos de los mexicanos," Anales del Museo Nacional de México, México, 2 (1882): 323-402 [390, 396-397], based upon Molina. See the discussion in Herbert J. Spinden, "The Question of the Zodiac in America," American Anthropologist, n.s. 18, #1 (January-March, 1916): 53-80 [58-59].
⁶ Eduard Seler, "Venus Period in the Picture Writings of the Borgian Codex Group," 356-357. See also, Michael D. Coe, "Native Astronomy in Mesoamerica," in Anthony F. Aveni (ed.), Archaeoastronomy in Pre-Columbian America (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1975) 3-31 [26].
⁷ Francesco Saverio Clavigero, The History of Mexico, 3 vols. (Philadelphia: T. Dobson, 1817) 2:97.
⁸ Clavigero, The History of Mexico, 2:18.
⁹ Sahagún, Bk 6 Ch 24, Ch 38.
¹⁰ Alfredo López Austin, Tamoanchan, Tlalocan: Places of Mist. Trs. Bernard R. Ortiz de Montellano and Thelma Ortiz de Montellano (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 1997) 229-230.
^10.1 Ixchel is ...
¹¹ Manuel Orozco y Berra, Historia antigua y de la conquista de México. Vol. 1: La civilisación; Escritura jeroglifica; Numeración. 3 vols. (Mexico City: Tip. de G. A. Esteva, 1880) 1:32. Robelo, Diccionario, 524b-525a, s. v. Yacahuitztli.
¹² Antonio de Nebrija, Dos excelentes diccionarios latino-español (Salamanca, 1492) y español-latino (1495), s. v. astilejos. Coe, "Native Astronomy in Mesoamerica," 26. Aveni, Skywatchers, 36.
¹³ Keber, Codex Telleriano-Remensis, 255b, Folio 4v (Hand 3 and Hand 2).
¹⁴ In a rather garbled list, Yacatecuhtli is said to have four brothers and a sister. One list gives them as Seven Rain, Xomócuil, Ácatl or Nácxitl, Cóchimetl, Yacapitzahua, and a sister, Chachalmecacíhuitl. Yólotl González Torres, El culto a los astros entre los mexicas (México : Secretaría de Educación Pública, Subsecretaría de Cultura Popular y Educación Extraescolar, Dirección General de Divulgación, Subdirección de Divulgación, 1975) 121. Cf. Sahagun, Bk. 1, Ch. 19 (43): Chiconquiauitl or Chalmecacuuatl, Acxomocuil, Nacxitl, Cochimetl, Yacapitzauac. Cf. the list in Durán, Book of the Gods and Rites and The Ancient Calendar, 204: Yacatecutli, Chiconquiahuitl, Cuauhtlaxayauh, Coyotlinahual, and Chachalmecacihu. Scott O'Mack, "Yacateuctli and Ehecatl-Quetzalcoatl," 24-25 nt. 7. Seler, Collected Works, 2: 1106, states that Cochimetl and Yacapitzauac are just other names for Yacatecuhtli; Chiconquiauitl/Chalmecaciuatl is a goddess of earth and water; Acxomocuil is Tezcatlipoca; and Nacxitl is Quetzxalcoatl.
¹⁵ Scott O'Mack, "Yacateuctli and Ehecatl-Quetzalcoatl," 25 nt. 7.
¹⁶ Leyenda de los Soles, 78:30-79:15.
¹⁷ Auh in jmuztlaioc, iquac heco in Jacapitzaoac, inj Jacatecutli: pochteca inteouh catca, yoa in Ixcoçauhquj, iehoatl in Xiuhtecutli, çan no pochteca inteouh catca. Sahagún, Bk. 2, Ch. 31 (129). González Torres, El culto a los astros entre los mexicas, 121 nt 13. Seler, Collected Works, 2: 1106.
¹⁸ Robelo, Diccionario, 524, s. v. Yacapitzahua. The verb form pitzahua, means, "to make somethng long and thin." Bierhorst, A Nahuatl-English Dictionary, 269, s. v. pitzāhua: tla. The noun form pitzāhuac means, "something thin, slender." It may also apply to a narrow road. Karttunen, An Analytic Dictionary of Nahuatl, s. v. pitzāhuac.
¹⁹ Robelo, Diccionario, 523a, ss. vv. Yacacoliuhqui; 35b, Pochteca. Torquemada says that it means "aquiline" (aguileña). Juan de Torquemada, Monarquía indiana, 2d ed., 3 vols. (Madrid: Nicolas Rodriguez Franco, 1723 [Seville: 1615]) Bk. 10, Ch. 21 (393).
²⁰ Torquemada, Monarquía indiana, Bk. 6, Ch. 28 (93), Bk. 10, Ch. 21 (393). J. Eric S. Thompson, "Merchant Gods of Middle America," in Summa Anthropologica en homenaje a Roberto J. Weitlaner (Mexico City: Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia, 1966) 159-172 [160]. Robelo, Diccionario, 523a, ss. vv. Yacacoliuhqui.
²¹ Robelo, Diccionario, 523-524, s. v. Yacahuitztli. López Austin renders the name as, "Puntiagudo", "nariz afilada", "el que precede". Alfredo López Austin, Educacion Mexica. Antologia de Documentos Sahaguntinos (Mexico City: Instituto de Investigaciones Antropologicas, Serie Antropológica 68, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, 1985) Glossary, s. v. Yacahuitztli. Yaca, as previously noted, can mean, "nose, point." Therefore, Yacahuitztli can mean just "fine point," as in quetzalyacahuitztli, "quetzal quill needle (fine point)." Alexis Wimmer, (2006). "Dictionnaire de la langue nahuatl classique" (2006. Online version, incorporating reproductions from Rémi Siméon, Dictionnaire de la langue nahuatl ou mexicaine [1885]) s. v. quetzalyacahuitztli. Karttunen's dictionary has, for huitztli, "thorn, spine, espina grande o puya" (Molina). Frances Karttunen, An Analytic Dictionary of Nahuatl (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1983) 91b, s. v. huitz-tli. Bierhorst distinguishes four senses: 1. "spine, point, thorn," 2. figuratively, "warrior," 3. "apophysis," 4. "maguey spine, and by extension, pulque." Bierhorst, A Nahuatl-English Dictionary, 143-144, s. v. huitztli.
^21.1 Fernández suggests that Yacatecuhtli is a star in Orion. Adela Fernández, Dioses prehispánicos de México: mitos y deidades del panteón náhuatl (Mexico City: Panorama Editorial, 1992) 139, 161.
²² Thompson, "Merchant Gods of Middle America," 161 Table; 162, #9.
²³ John Eric Sidney Thompson, Maya Archaeologist (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1963) 126.
²⁴ Siméon gives both meanings, "nariz, punta." Siméon, Diccionario, 157b, s. v. yacatl. Karttunen has, "nose, point, ridge, nariz o punta de algo (Molina)." Karttunen, An Analytic Dictionary of Nahuatl, 333b, s. v. yac(a)-tl. Bierhorst gives these meanings, yac(a)-tl¹, "nose"; yac(a)-tl², "beak"; yac(a)-tl⁵, "point, extremity, growing tip, shoot, bud, figuratively, ghost warrior, revenant." Bierhorst, A Nahuatl-English Dictionary, 401-402, s. v. yac(a)-tl.
²⁵ Thompson, "Merchant Gods of Middle America," 160.
²⁶ Torquemada, Monarquía indiana, Bk. 10, Ch. 21 (393).
²⁷ "La nuict aussi disent avoir esté faicte par aultres dieux només Yoalteutli, et sa femme Yacahuiztli." The Spanish text omits "femme": «La noche también dicen haber sido hecha por otros dioses, llamados Yoaltecutli y Yacohuiztli.» For the name Tlacopili, see André Thévet, "Histoyre du Méchique, manuscrit français inédit du XVIe siècle," ed. Edouard de Jonghe, Journal de la Société des Américanistes, Nouvelle Série, 2 (1905): 1-41 [26] = Garibay, Teogonía e historia de los mexicanos, 105, §117 (Spanish text).
^27.1 That Yohualtecuhtli and Yoalticitl are husband and wife is inferred from this statement in Sahagún: Hijo mio muy amado, y muy tierno: cata aquí, la doctrina que nos dejaron nuestro señor Yoaltecutli, y la señora Yoalticitl, tu padre y madre. ("My son much loved, and very sweet: here is wine, the traditions which were left us by our lord Yoaltecutli and the lady Yoalticitl, your father and mother.") Sahagún, Florentine Codex, Bk 6, Ch. 31 (171). That they are conjointly deemed to be the father and mother suggests that they are a consort pair. Durand even translates it thus: Oh mon fils trés aimé, voici la doctrine que nous ont laissée notre Seigneur «Yoaltecuhtli» et son épouse «Yoalticitl» : ton pére et ta mére …" Jacqueline de Durand-Forest, "L'education dans le mexique du XVIe siecle," Histoire, Économie et Société, 5, #3 (3e trimestre 1986): 331-346 [332].
²⁸ Robelo, Diccionario, 548a, s. v. Yoalticitl. Arthur J.O. Anderson, "Aztec Hymns of Life and Love." New Scholar, 8 (1982): 1-74 [35]. Willard Gingerich, "Three Nahuatl Hymns on the Mother Archetype: An Interpretive Commentary," Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos, 4, #2 (Summer, 1988): 191-244 [204]. Joseph Kroger and Patrizia Granziera, Aztec Goddesses and Christian Madonnas: Images of the Divine Feminine in Mexico (Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2012) 217.
²⁹ Susan Milbrath, "Gender and Roles of Lunar Deities in Postclassic Central Mexico and Their Correlations with the Maya Area," Estudios de Cultura Náhuatl, 25 (1995): 45-94 [55].
³⁰ Kroger and Granziera, Aztec Goddesses and Christian Madonnas, 217.
^30.1 According to Paso y Troncoso, Yoalticitl is also identical to Temazcalteci, the deified temazcales or sweatbath. Robelo, Diccionario, 495, s. v. Xochicalli.
³¹ Sahagún, Florentine Codex, Bk. 6, Ch. 27 (153). Gingerich, "Three Nahuatl Hymns on the Mother Archetype: An Interpretive Commentary," 225. Linton Satterthwaite, "Recognition of Sweathouses at Piedras Negras: Diagnostic Traits and Terminology," in Piedras Negras Archaeology, 1931-1939, edd. John M. Weeks, Jane A. Hill, and Charles Golden, (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, 2005) 247.
³² Thompson, "Merchant Gods of Middle America," 160.
³³ Eduard Seler, Codex Borgia: Eine altmexikanische Bilderschrift der Bibliothek der Congregatio de Propaganda Fide, 3 vols. (Berlin: Druck von Gebr. Unger, 1904) 1:153-154, 2:18 (goddess of the full moon). Seler, Collected Works, 111 (315). Cecelia F. Klein, "Post-Classic Mexican Death Imagery as a Sign of Completion," in Death and the Afterlife in Pre-Columbian America. Ed. E. P. Benson (Washington, D. C., Dumbarton Oaks 1975) 69-86 [72]. Elizabeth Baquedano, "Aztec Earth Deities," in Polytheistic Systems, ed. Glenys Davies (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1989), 184-198 [193]. Milbrath, "Gender and Roles of Lunar Deities," 55.
³⁴ Kroger and Granziera, Aztec Goddesses and Christian Madonnas, 53.
³⁵ Durán, Book of the Gods and Rites and The Ancient Calendar, 229-237. Milbrath, "Gender and Roles of Lunar Deities," 56-57.
³⁶ «prêtre du strombe». Patrick Saurin, Teocuicatl: Chants sacrés des anciens Mexicains, Volume 36 of Mémoires de l'Institut d'ethnologie,  (Paris: Publications scientifiques du Muséum, 1999) 132.
³⁷ Frances E. Karttunen, An Analytical Dictionary of Nahuatl (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1992) 215, s. v. TĒCCIZ-TLI.
³⁸ Codex Borgia, 66, Codex Vaticanus B, 54, Codex Borbonicus, 6 (?), Codex Tonalamatl Aubin, 6, Codex Telleriano Remensis, 13r, Spranz, Los Dioses en los Codices Mexicanos del Grupo Borgia, 162-165. David H. Kelley, "Astronomical Identities of Mesoamerican Gods," Archaeoastronomy, 2 (JHA, xi (1980): S1-S54 [S6, Table III-b66]. Miller and Taube, An Illustrated Dictionary of the Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya, 173, s. v. "trecena - #6." Boone, Cycles of Time and Meaning in the Mexican Books of Fate, 48, Table 6-6; 251a §15. The oddity of this sign being held propitious is explained by Olivier in terms of its association with the Moon. Mockeries and Metamorphoses of an Aztec God, 36-38.
³⁹ Codex Borgia, 11. Codex Vaticanus B, 30, 88. Seler, Collected Works, 1:123b (I.425-426), cf. Seler's Commentary in Codex Borgia, 1:7. Kelley, "Astronomical Identities of Mesoamerican Gods," S6, Table III-a6. Boone, Cycles of Time and Meaning in the Mexican Books of Fate, 47, Table 5-6; 105, Table 8-6.
⁴⁰ Codex Borgia, 11. Codex Vaticanus B, 30, 38, 88. Codex Fejérváry-Mayer, 24. Spranz, Los Dioses en los Codices Mexicanos del Grupo Borgia, 162; 166, Fig. 465.
⁴¹ Spranz, Los Dioses en los Codices Mexicanos del Grupo Borgia, 162. The status of Yamaniliztli as a lunar goddess helps explain two confusions that we have already encountered. It was first suggested that Yohualtecuhtli might be the Moon rather than the Sun. We can see now that the associated star and deity of Yamaniliztli, who is actually identified with the Moon, has led to this confusion of identities. She might also have been conceived as the consort of Yohualtecuhtli inasmuch as the Moon is often paired in this way with the Sun. The second confusion is the naming of Yacahuitztli as the consort of Yohualtecuhtli. This role belonged to the third star of the set, the female deity, although we need not attribute to Yamaniliztli the creation of the night.
⁴² Thompson, Maya Hieroglyphic Writing, 133b.
⁴³ Codex Telleriano Remensis, 13r, Hand 3.
⁴⁴ Hieronymo de Chavez in 1576 said of native beliefs concerning the Moon, "all moisture is governed by it." Seler, Collected Works, 4.- (IV.129). For a comparative perspective, see Mircea Eliade, Patterns in Comparative Religion (New York: New American Library [Meridian], 1958) §49. The Moon and the Waters, 159-161.
⁴⁵ Sahagún, Florentine Codex, Bk. 9, Ch. 3 (9).
⁴⁶ Sahagún, Florentine Codex, Bk. 9, Ch. 3 (9, 10, 11, 13); Bk. 4, Chs. 16-19 (59-70).
⁴⁷ Sahagún, Florentine Codex, Bk 9 (9-11). Bk 11 (269). See also, Boone, Cycles of Time and Meaning in the Mexican Books of Fate, 142b.
⁴⁸ Thompson, "Merchant Gods of Middle America," 159-160.
⁴⁹ Miller and Taube, An Illustrated Dictionary of the Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya, 174b, s. v. "Turtle."
⁵⁰ Miller and Taube, An Illustrated Dictionary of the Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya, 175a, s. v. "Turtle." The conch shell is also used to make the sound of thunder. Taube, The Major Gods of Ancient Yucatan, 99a.
⁵¹ See the thorough discussion in Susan Milbrath, Star Gods of the Maya: Astronomy in Art, Folklore, and Calendars (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1999) 266b-268a. There is some confusion with Gemini, but that either arises from precession in which Orion, once in the astrological sign Gemini, shifted away from it over time. However, there exists a myth in which Castor and Pollux were portrayed as dwarves. The Maya word for dwarf is ac (267), which also means "turtle," hence the confusion. Cp. also, God M (Ek’ Chuah) paired with a turtle, Codex Tro-Cortesianus 19 (center); 51^c, shows at least one turtle head paired with a deer head in the headdress of God M.
⁵² David Freidel, Linda Schele, and Joy Parker, Maya Cosmos: Three Thousand Years on the Shaman's Path (New York: Harper-Collins, 1995) 79-86, 96-99. With respect to the birth of the Maize God, Taube interprets his birth from a crack in the carapice of the turtle in a different way. The turtle may also represent the earth, so this mythic scene may be taken to represent the rebirth of maize from the center of the earth, thus stressing Centrality rather than anything tied to archaeoastronomy. Karl Taube, "The Jade Hearth: Centrality, Rulership, and the Classic Maya Temple," in Function and Meaning in Classic Maya Architecture, ed. Stephen D. Houston. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection (Washington: Dumbarton Oaks, 1998) 427-478 [441]. Karl Taube, Aztec and Maya Myth (London: British Museum Press, 1993) 77.
⁵³ A
³ A
⁴ A
⁵ A
⁶ A
⁷ A
⁸ A
⁹ A
¹⁰ A
¹¹ A

§4. Seven Water.

¹ Sahagún, Florentine Codex, 3:202. Klein, "The Identity of the Central Deity on the Aztec Calendar Stone," 8.
² Klein, "The Identity of the Central Deity on the Aztec Calendar Stone," 8 nt. 33. See Walter Krickeberg, Las antiguas culturas mexicanas, 2nd ed. (Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1964) 130; and Cecelia F. Klein, The Face of the Earth: Frontality in Two-Dimensional Mesoamerican Art (New York, Garland Publishing, 1976) 33-34.
³ It can be seen from this table that the veintena marker role of Mintaka had been going on since +723, but consistently only for June 7 on the Julian calendar.

¹ Durán, Book of the Gods and Rites and The Ancient Calendar, 412.
^1.1 The argument for this correlation is given in Alfonso Caso, Los calendarios prehispánicos (Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas, 1967) 41-90.
² In the year 1-Rabbit (+726-727), the Xiuhpohualli calendar related to the Tonalpohualli calendar as shown in this table.

It can be seen that every veintena began with a Water day, and ends with a Rabbit day, just as does the year as a whole. The numerical prefixes can be computed by use of a Möbius strip –

This Möbius strip can be used to calculate the prefix numbers for any series of successive days beginning a veintena having the same day-sign.
³ Durán, Book of the Gods and Rites and The Ancient Calendar, 412-413.
⁴ Bodo Spranz, Los Dioses en los Códices Mexicanos del Grupo Borgia: una Investigación Iconográfica, trs. Marìa Martínez Peñaloza (Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1973), 420. J. Eric Thompson, "Sky Bearers, Colors and Directions in Maya and Mexican Religion," Contributions to American Archeology, 2, #10 (August 30, 1934): 211-245 [221 and Table].
⁵ Sahagún, Florentine Codex, Bk. 7, Ch. 2 (3-7).
⁶ Sahagún, Florentine Codex, Bk. 7, Ch. 2 (8).
⁷ Gerónimo de Mendieta, Historia eclesiástica indiana, ed. Joaquín García Icazbalceta. Facsimile of the 1870 ed. (Mexico City: Editorial Porrúa, 1971) 79.
⁸ Boone, Cycles of Time and Meaning in the Mexican Books of Fate, 188, Fig. 109; 189. Cf. Brundage who argues at length that Xolotl is an avatar of Four Movement. He gives essentially the same interpretation to Borgia 34. Burr Cartwright Brundage, The Phoenix of the Western World: Quetzalcoatl and the Sky Religion (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1982) 201-203 and Fig. 28. He suggests that Nanahuatl is "the crippled form of Xolotl who became the fifth sun." Burr Cartwright Brundage, The Jade Steps: A Ritual Life of the Aztecs (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1985) 147. He also points out that Xolotl has the same calendar name "Four Motion" as Tonatiuh. For Xolotl and the name "Four Motion," see Codex Vaticanus B, 64; Caso, 93, s. v. 4. Ollin; and here. Cf. Borgia 46, whence the illustration below was taken.

Seler takes the fire drilling figure to represent Quetzalcoatl as Evening Star starting a fire on the Fire Goddess. Seler, Commentary on Codex Vaticanus B, 1:122-123.
⁹ On the other hand, this may be a slightly evolved version of the five-pointed, half-star symbol of a single phase of Venus, here obviously the Evening Star phase. For this symbol, see Carlson, "Venus-Regulated Warfare and Ritual Sacrifice in Mesoamerica," 204, §8.2; and 205, Fig. 8.1.
¹⁰ Milbrath says, "In her account of the creation of the sun, Boone interprets this same figure as the newborn sun embodied by Xolotl, which seems strange, because the sun already appears in the sky on the previous page. ... She goes on to connect [Xolotl] with two Aztec accounts of the birth of the sun that mention Xolotl ... but neither legend really supports her interpretation or her conclusions that in the Borgia 'the red Xolotl is the sun'." Milbrath, Heaven and Earth in Ancient Mexico, 139, nt. 53. Borgia 33, here referenced, shows a scorpion with a long, meandering tail that passes through a dark-faced tecpatl (sacrificial knife) which forms its stinger. Emerging from the coils of the scorpion's tail after this passage, are a deer carrying the solar symbol and the rabbit carrying the lunar symbol. Since the dark-faced tecpatl that forms the stinger is no doubt symbolic of the fire – the stinger of the scorpion is identified with burning inasmuch as the wound it inflicts produces such a sensation (Seler) – what we see here is an elaborate allusion to the myth in which the two candidates for the honor of becoming these celestial bodies eventually cast themselves into the sacrificial fire which transforms them into the Sun and the Moon. This first Sun is Tonatiuh proper, whom we have shown to have been born on the Winter Solstice. What is demonstrated by the astronomical correlates is that the Boone thesis is indeed correct.
¹¹ Miller and Taube, An Illustrated Dictionary of the Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya, 98b, s. v. Ilamatecuhtli.
^11.1 "In the case of Imix [in relation to Aztec signs], though the meaning is unknown, the Imix-ceiba tree is represented with crocodile-heads at its base and the glyph is found associated with the crocodile." Kelley, "Astronomical Identities of Mesoamerican Gods," S4. See also, Taube, The Major Gods of Ancient Yucatan, 82, Fig. 39b.
¹² Taube, The Major Gods of Ancient Yucatan, 84b.
¹³ Eduard Seler, "Venus Period in the Picture Writings of the Borgian Codex Group," Mexican and Central American Antiquities, Calendar Systems, and History, ed. Charles P. Bowditch. Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 28 (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1904) 355-391. Taube, The Major Gods of Ancient Yucatan, 79b.
¹⁴ Five Flower (Macuilxochitl) "... is the principal god of the Ahuiateteo, who are named after the five southern day names appearing with the coefficient of 5 and who are gods simultaneously of excess pleasure and of consequent punishment." Miller and Taube, An Illustrated Dictionary of the Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya, 108a, s. v. Macuilxochitl. The other gods of the Ahuiateteo are Five Lizard, Five Rabbit, Five Grass, and Five Vulture. Miller and Taube, An Illustrated Dictionary of the Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya, 40a, s. v. Ahuiateteo; 75-76, s. v. "deformity." The Sun, having reached an extreme of light and northern progression at the Summer Solstice, thereafter moves south, which shows a connection to both excess, its punishment, and the direction south.
¹⁵ Michel Graulich, Myths of Ancient Mexico, trs. Bernard R. Ortiz de Montellano and Thelma Ortiz de Montellano (Norman: University of Oklahoma, 1997) 183-184.
¹⁶ Using a computer program to calculate Aztec equivalents to Julian dates, it is clear that the only 4-Motion day to fall in the first venteina was on 1564 February 1. This was the 19th day of the first veintena. The Aztec Calendar, February 1, 1564.
¹⁷ Durán, Book of the Gods and Rites and The Ancient Calendar, 414.
¹⁸ Durán, Book of the Gods and Rites and The Ancient Calendar, 198-199.
¹⁹ Alfonso Caso, "Nombres calendáricos de los dioses," El México antiguo, 9 (1959): 77-100.
²⁰ Milbrath probably more correctly refers to the set not as eagles, but as raptors, since a hawk and an owl seem to be included among them. Milbrath, Heaven and Earth in Ancient Mexico, ...
²¹ Boone, Cycles of Time and Meaning in the Mexican Books of Fate, 104-107.
²² The presence of the hunter's net would seem to favor Camaxtli over Tlalhuizcalpantecuhtli. Milbrath, Heaven and Earth in Ancient Mexico, ...
²³ Thompson, "Sky Bearers, Colors and Directions in Maya and Mexican Religion," 217-218.
²⁴ Seler, Collected Works, 6:2b.
²⁵ Annals of Cuauhtitlan, 1:15-19. Leyenda de los Soles, 79:34-80:5
²⁶ Thompson, "Sky Bearers, Colors and Directions in Maya and Mexican Religion," 217-218.
^1
2 A
³ A
²² A
²³ A
²⁴ A
²⁵ A
²⁶ A

§6. The Stars of the Wrist and Hand.

² Bear's Arm, "3. The Sacred Arrow," in Martha Warren Beckwith, Mandan and Hidatsa Mythology, Publications of the Folk-Lore Foundation (Poughkeepsie: Vassar College) #10 (1930): 22-52 [41-42]. Cf. another version in which the brothers are Atùtish and Mahash, who are themselves raised by the brothers Long Tail and Spotted Body. Mahash rescues his brother by turning into an ant. Washington Matthews, A Folk-tale of the Hidatsa Indians, 136-143 [136-139] = The Ethnography and Philology of the Hidatsa Indians, The United States Geological and Geographical Survey, Miscellaneous Publications, No. 7 (Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1877) 63-70.
³ Presumably Morning Star (of Venus). The Sixth Grandfather, Black Elk's Teachings Given to John G. Neihardt, ed. Raymond J. DeMallie (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1984) 404-409.
⁴ Goodman, Lakota Star Knowledge, 27.
⁵ Ella Deloria, Dakota Texts (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2006) 133-137.
⁶ La Flesche, A Dictionary of the Osage Language, 140, s. v. thá-bthiⁿ; 301, s. v. "Orion's Belt"; La Flesche, The Osage Tribe: Two Versions of the Child-Naming Rite, 74-75; Louis F. Burns, Osage Indian Customs and Myths (Tuscaloosa, Alabama: University of Alabama Press, 2005 [1984]) 204; Garrick A. Bailey, The Osage and the Invisible World, from the Works of Francis La Flesche (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1995) 39; Robert L. Hall, An Archaeology of the Soul: North American Indian Belief and Ritual (Urbana & Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1997) 193 nt. 27.
⁷ Robelo, Diccionario, s. v. Yoaltecuhtli.
⁸ Hunab-Ku, the chief deity of the pantheon, was also known as Kinebahan, the "Teeth and Eyes of the Sun." The emphasis on his teeth and eyes may be another case of Seven Macaw's presumptuousness.
⁹ This is my own retelling of the story, which comes from Popol Vuh: The Mayan Book of the Dawn of Life, trs. Dennis Tedlock. Revised Edition (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996 [1985]) 71-74, 77-81.
¹⁰ According to modern Quiché, his name refers to the seven stars of the Big Dipper asterism. Miguel Alvarado López, Léxico médico Quiché-Español (Guatemala City: Instituto Indigenista Nacional, 1975) 73. Juan de León, Diccionario Quiché-Español (Guartemala City: Editorial Landivar, 1955) 33, s. v. gucup cakix. Tedlock, Popol Vuh, 237, note to page 73. Milbrath, Star Gods of the Maya, 274a.
¹¹ References to the episode are already present on the Late Preclassic stela 25 from Izapa, near the Pacific coast, where a man with a mutilated arm looks upward towards a bird perched on a pole, and on a facade of the Copan ballcourt, where a war-serpent head inserted between the legs of a large bird holds the severed arm of Hunahpu. Julia Guernsey, Ritual and Power in Stone. The Performance of Rulership in Mesoamerican Izapa Style Art (Austin: University of Texas Press 2006) 111-113, figs. 5.29 and 5.30. The episode has also been connected to Izapa's stela 2, where two small figures assumed to be the Twin Heroes flank a large descending bird personifier (perhaps a royal ancestor). Michael D. Coe, "The Hero Twins: Myth and Image," in The Maya Vase Book: A Corpus of Rollout Photographs of Maya Vases, Volume 1 (New York: Kerr Associates, 1989) 161-162.
¹² Guernsey, Ritual and Power in Stone, 112. Frank J. Lipp, The Mixe of Oaxaca: Religion, Ritual, and Healing (Austin : University of Texas Press 1991) 75. Guernsey gives this account of the myth, quoting Lipp,

A legend recorded by Lipp recounts the exploits of twins, a boy and a girl who, after being refused shelter in a village, were carried off in the night by a giant animal:

When they woke up the next morning, they did not know where they were ... The girl, who was more alert, saw the giant animal who had carried them off sleeping in a large tree. The children then cut sticks and picked up points to make arrows, six arrows for each twin. The girl went first to shoot but was unable to hit the beast. When only two arrows were left, the boy took the arrows and shot at the animal, which fell off the mountain and landed with a resounding echo below.

The correlations between the Mixe legends and the Maya Popol Vuh story are immediately clear. First, although the "giant animal" in the Mixe legend is not identified specifically as a bird, its perch in a tree is suggestive of such. Second, its defeat by the twin as the result of a successful shot closely parallels the Popol Vuh account. These analogies, especially in conjunction with the imagery of Izapa Stela 25, suggest an ancient, shared creation narrative whose roots are discernible in the monumental record of the Preclassic period.

Despite the geographical proximity of the Mixe to the Maya, it is clear that the Sioux "Lost Arm" myths are much closer in detail to the Maya than is the Mixe.
¹³ Edmundo Magaña and Fabiola Jara, "The Carib Sky," Journal de la Société des Américanistes, 68 (1982): 105-132 [113-115, s. v. Epietembo]. Walter E. Roth, An Inquiry into the Animism and Folklore of the Guiana Indians, in the 30th Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, (Washington:  U. S. Government Printing Office, 1915 [1909]) 134-135.
¹⁴ William Henry Brett, Legends and Myths of the Aboriginal Indians of British Guiana, 2d ed. (London: W. W. Gardner, 1880) 191-200. Frederik Paul Penard and Arthur Philip Penard, De Meschetende Aanbidders der Zonneslang (Paramaribo: H. B. Heyde, 1907) 1:59-63, 1:95, 1:105, 1:117. De Meschetende Aanbidders der Zonneslang: Het Woord van den Indianischen Messias (Paramaribo: 1908) 2:39-43. Willem G. Ahlbrinck, Encyclopaedic der Karaïben (Amsterdam: Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen, 1931) 371-372.
¹⁵ Michel Graulich, Myths of Ancient Mexico, trs. Bernard R. Ortiz de Montellano and Thelma Ortiz de Montellano (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1997) 48.
¹⁶ Juan de León, Mundo Quiché (Guatemala City: Miscelánea, 1945) 44-45. Robert M. Carmack, The Quiché Maya of Utatlán: The Evolution of a Highland Guatemala Kingdom (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1981) 356. Milbrath, Star Gods of the Maya, 266b.
¹⁷ Munro S. Edmonson, The Book of Counsel: The Popol Vuh of the Quiche Maya of Guatemala. Middle American Research Institute, Publication 35 (New Orleans: Tulane University Press, 1971) 11-12. "In this area of Mesoamerica [Utatlán], the stars of Orion are seen in a true zenith position. This may be why they express the notion of centrality among the Quiché Maya, who associate Orion with a deity known as Heart of the Sky." Milbrath, Star Gods of the Maya, 266b. To Huracán, cf. Manbokouicayen, "the one-legged man" (Orion). R. Breton, Dictionnaire Caraïbe-Français (Leipzig, 1892 [Auxerre: 1665]) 192, 194. Magaña and Jara, "The Carib Sky," 113.
¹⁸ Bernardino de Sahagún, Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain. Book 7: The Sun, Moon, and Stars, and the Binding of the Years. Trs. Charles E. Dibble, Arthur J. O. Anderson. Archaeological Institute of America, Monograph 14, Part 8, Book 7:11. (Santa Fe: School of American Research, 1953) fig. 21; Aveni, Skywatchers, 32, fig. 10. A tranlsation based on the German rendering of the Nahuatl text replaces "wrist" with "hand": "And therefore [the constellation] is called the Drill (Mamalhuaztli), because the fire stick equipment resembles it. Because if one starts the fire stick equipment, really the fire sticks bore themselves into one another, so that the fire flares up, so that it breaks out, so that it kindles itself. And thus originated as well the custom that one burned oneself on the hand, our men burning themselves on the hand to prove reverence to him [Mamalhuaztli]. They were afraid, the men frightened themselves and said and meant that anyone who does not burn himself on the hand would have to drill fire in his hand in Mictlan (Spiritland), once he had died. Thus, everyone of our men burned himself on the hand, bringing this brand to both sides in his hand according to order and rule. Thus, they copied Mamalhuaztli. In this way the thing came into an arranged and regulated condition, so thus regulated and arranged, their hand burn was in their hand." Here is the Nahuatl text: Auh ynic mitoa mamalhuaztli, ytech moneneuilia yn tlequavitl. yehica yn yquac tlequauhtlaxo, ca momamali yn tlequavitl, ynic vetzi, ynyc xotla, ynic mopitza tletl. no yoan ynic nematlatiloya, ynic momatlatiaya toquichti, yehoatl quimacacia. mimacacia, ymacaxoya, mitoaya, quilmach, yn aquin amo nematlatile, ymac tlequauh tlaxoz yn mictlan, yniquac omic. yehica yn toquichti muchi tlacatl momatlatiaya, nenecoc ynmac quiuiuipanaya, quitetecpanaya yn innematlatil. yc quitlayehecalhuiaya yn mamalhuaztli. yniuh vipantoc, tecpantoc, noyuh quiuiuipanaya, quitetecpanaya yn inmac ynnematlatil. Bernardino de Sahagún, Wahrsagerei, Himmelskunde und Kalender der alten Azteken (Historia general de las cosas de Nueva España), Libros 5-7 (Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer, 1950) 42-45.
¹⁹ This is the Spanish text: Llaman a estas estrellas mamalhuaztli y por este mismo nõbre llaman a los palos con q̃ sacan lumbre ponq̃ les parece q̃ tienen alguna semeiança cõ ellas y que de alli les vino esta manera de sacar fuego. De aqui tamaron por costumbre de hazer vnas quemaduras en la moñeca los varones a honra de aq̃llas estrellas. Dezian que el q̃ no fuese señalado de aquellas quemaduras quando se muriese q̃ alla en el infierno avian de sacar el fuego de su moñeca barrenãdola como qñ aca sacã el fuego del palo. Sahagún, Florentine Codex, Book 7:60-62. The English translation given in the text is by Charles E. Dibble and Arthur J. O. Anderson.
²⁰ Sahagún, Florentine Codex, Book 7:11.
²¹ John Bierhorst, A Nahuatl-English Dictionary and Concordance to the Cantares Mexicanos: with an Analytic Transcription and Grammatical Notes (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1985) ss. vv.
²² Historia Tolteca-Chichimeca (Mexico City: Robredo, 1947) 81-85.
²³ Waterman, The Delineation of the Day-signs in the Aztec Manuscripts, 351-353. An mere antler can be found at Codex Ferjervary 20; a leg and hoof at Codex Ferjervary 21 and 36.
²⁴ William Gates, An Outline Dictionary of Maya Glyphs, with a Concordance and Analysis of Their Relationships (New York: Dover Publications, 1978 [1931]) 28.
²⁵ B. L. Whorf, "A Central Mexican Inscription Combining Mexican and Maya Day Signs," American Anthropologist, New Series, 34, #2 (April - June, 1932): 296-302 [299, fig. 2.10].
²⁶ Whorf, "A Central Mexican Inscription," 298, fig. 1.10.
²⁷ The sequence of five gods drilling fire in a Manik sign hand represent five 52 day bundles totaling a complete cycle of 260 days. Barnhart is also unable to explain the significance of drillling in a Manik sign, but notes, "It is interesting that 1 Manik’ is the day upon which the almanac begins." Edwin L. Barnhart, The First Twenty-Three Pages of the Dresden Codex: The Divination Pages, Based on his May 1996 Thesis submitted to the Graduate School of the University of Texas at Austin, revised: August, 2005, 40-41. Thompson comments on this set of divinitory almanac illustrations, "Fire making. All figures hold fire drills, the bases of which rest on a hand in the Manik position. The wood drilled is the chacah, gumbolimbo tree. A connection with hand is not evident." (pp. 5b-6b). J. Eric S. Thompson, A Commentary on the Dresden Codex. A Maya Hieroglyphic Book. Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society, 93 (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1972) 38a-b, s. v. "Almanac 15." Gates was also unable to say what the significance was of drilling fire into the Manik sign. An Outline Dictionary of Maya Glyphs, 27-30, 190-191.
²⁸ Seler, Commentary on Codex Borgia, 2:164.
²⁹ Sylvanus Griswold Morley, The Ancient Maya (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1994) 535. Ana María Guerrero, "Ek Chuah, deidad identificada principalmente por fuentes coloniales del Centro de México: Similitudes iconográficas," in the XXII Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala, 2008 (ed. J.P. Laporte, B. Arroyo, and H. Mejía), 1193-1199 [1194].
³⁰ Codex Madrid, 79, 80, 82, 83, 84.
³¹ Barbara Tedlock, "Hawks, Meteorology, and Astronomy in Quiché-Maya Agriculture," Archaeoastronomy: The Bulletin of the Center for Archaeoastronomy, 8, #1-4 (January-December, 1985): 80-88 [86b]. Barbara Tedlock, Time and the Highland Maya. Rev. ed. (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1992) 181-182. Tedlock, Popol Vuh, 61. Milbrath, Star Gods of the Maya, 39b. For je’ as "tail," see Allen J. Christenson, K’iche’-English Dictionary and Guide to Pronunciation of the K’iche’-Maya Alphabet (FAMSI, compiled 1978-1985) s. v., je’. Tedlock translates it as "stem."
³² Karl A. Taube, The Major Gods of Ancient Yucatan, Volume 32 of Dumbarton Oaks Pre-Columbian Art and Archaeology Studies Series (Washington: Dumbarton Oaks, 1992) 84.
³³ Taube, The Major Gods of Ancient Yucatan, 84a Fig. 41a, which shows God K carried in God L's backpack. Miller and Taube, 147a, s. v. "Shellhas gods."

§7. The Hearthstones.

²⁶ x
²⁷ Annals of Cuauhtitlan, 1:5-9.
²⁸ There is a paucity of archaeological remains upon which to base this conclusion, perhaps largely because of the practice of reusing hearth stones. Nevertheless, the case for tripartitite, triangular hearth stones arrangements as standard to Maya fireplaces, can be confidently made. Taube, "The Jade Hearth: Centrality, Rulership, and the Classic Maya Temple," 434-438.
²⁹ Tedlock, "Hawks, Meteorology, and Astronomy in Quiché-Maya Agriculture," 86b. Tedlock, Popol Vuh, 236. Freidel, Schele, and Parker, Maya Cosmos, 79. Milbrath, Star Gods of the Maya, 39b, 267a.
³⁰ Blood Clot Boy is Smoking Star — Clark Wissler and D. C. Duvall, "Mythology of the Blackfoot Indians," Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, 2 (1909): 1-164 [53 ff].
³¹ Coe, The Maya Scribe and His World, 14. Michael D. Coe, Lords of the Underworld: Masterpieces of Classic Maya Ceramics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978) 16.
³² Barbara Kerr and Justin Kerr, "The Way of God L: The Princeton Vase Revisited," Record of the Princeton Art Museum, 64 (2005): 71-78 [74b; 75a, Fig. 9]. Justin Kerr, The Maya Vase Book, vol. 1, ed. Barbara Kerr (New York, 1989), 81, K2796. Coe, Lords of the Underworld, ... Taube, The Major Gods of Ancient Yucatan, 81a. Freidel, Schele, and Parker, Maya Cosmos, 68, Fig. 2:6.
³³ Freidel, Schele, and Parker, Maya Cosmos, 62-63.
³⁴ Freidel, Schele, and Parker, Maya Cosmos, 69-71; 70, Fig. 2:7.
³⁵ Freidel, Schele, and Parker, Maya Cosmos, 74-75.
³⁶ Freidel, Schele, and Parker, Maya Cosmos, 75.
³⁷ Freidel, Schele, and Parker, Maya Cosmos, 79.
³⁸ Freidel, Schele, and Parker, Maya Cosmos, 64, Fig. 2:2 (Maya text).
³⁹ Freidel, Schele, and Parker, Maya Cosmos, 66; 67, Fig. 2:5 (Maya text).
⁴⁰ Kerr and Kerr, "The Way of God L: The Princeton Vase Revisited," 74b.
⁴¹ Freidel, Schele, and Parker, Maya Cosmos, 68.
⁴² "He sits on the jaguar-covered throne mentioned in the Quirigua account of Creation." Freidel, Schele, and Parker, Maya Cosmos, 68 and Fig. 2:6.
⁴³ Goodman, Lakota Star Knowledge, 44.
⁴⁴ Goodman, Lakota Star Knowledge, 8, 11, 16.
⁴⁵ Goodman, Lakota Star Knowledge, 8-19.
⁴⁶ x
⁴⁷ x
³

§8. The Portal of Souls.

¹ A
² A
²¹ Bear's Arm, "3. The Sacred Arrow," in Martha Warren Beckwith, Myths and Hunting Stories of the Mandan and Hidatsa Sioux, Publications of the Folk-Lore Foundation (Poughkeepsie: Vassar College) #10 (1930): 22-52 [42].
²² Bear's Arm [Beckwith], "3. The Sacred Arrow," 42.
²³ Goodman, Lakota Star Knowledge, 22, 39.
²⁴ The chief of the Seven Stars (Big Dipper) is Cedar Between the Eyes. Timothy P. McCleary, The Stars We Know: Crow Indian Astronomy and Lifeways (Prospect Hills, Illinois: Waveland Press, 1997) 68. On page 64 he says,

Ihkaléaxe [Sirius] has a helper, and this helper is suppposed to be a giant, a huge man. They call him Ischéenmuluxpawishe [Cedar Between the Eyes]. They say he has a cedar chip between his eyes, so that's why they sall him Ischéenmuluxpawishe. He is the one that takes the dead people back to the Other Side, or where they go when they die. They attribute cannibalistic tendencies, they say that this man, this giant, Ischéenmuluxpawishe, he eats the dead people and that's why they fear him. He has cannibalistic tendencies.

So the souls of the dead are taken to Spiritland by a star in the Big Dipper, one who is also responsible for the devouring (decay ?) of the flesh.
^24.1 Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, Information Respecting the History, Condition and Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the United States, 4 vols. (Philadelphia: Lippincott, Grambo & Company, 1856) 4:240. For the Ioway it is Wanáxi Chína Náwun, “Spirit Village Road”. Goodtracks, Báxoje-Jiwére-Ñú’achi Ich’e Wawagaxe — Ioway-Oto-Missouria Dictionary, "M" 5b, s.v. "Milky Way." The Omaha also believe that the Milky Way is a pathway of the dead. Miller, Stars of the First People, 234. Cf. the Dakota Wanáġi-taćaŋku, "the Milky Way" (literally, "Road of the Spirits"). Riggs, A Dakota-English Dictionary, 519b, s.v. Wanáġi-taćaŋku; 90a, s.v. ćaŋkú; Williamson, An English-Dakota Dictionary, 108a, s.v. "milky-way"; Lakota, Wanagi Tacanku, "the Spirit Road," Eugene Buechel and Paul Manhart, Lakota Dictionary (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002) 341a, s.v. Wanagi Tacanku; Jan Ullrich, New Lakota Dictionary (Bloomington: Lakota Language Consortium, 2008) 950b, s.v. "Milky Way," 569b, s.v. wanáǧi tȟacȟáyku; cf. Oglala Lakota, Wanaġi Ṫa Ċaŋkū, "the Path of Spirits," Goodman, Lak̇oṫa Star Knowledge, 40. Farther afield linguistically, we have Iroquois, Dja-swĕ́n-do‘, the "Great Sky Road," on which the souls of the dead travel to paradise. Harriet Maxwell Converse, Myths and Legends of the New York State Iroquois. Volume 125 (#437) of the Museum Bulletin of the New York State Museum (Albany: University of the State of New York, December 15, 1908) 56-57. The Ojibwe speak of it as Tchibekana, "Road of the Dead," Frederic Baraga, A Dictionary of the Ojibway Language (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1992 [1878]) 170a, s.v. "Milky Way"; 237b, s.v. mikana; 382a, ss.vv. tchibe, tchibekana. According to the Gros Ventre, the departed soul travels over Tsŭkyŭnbya, the Milky Way, on the way to the Big Sand paradise in the north. Curtis, The North American Indian, 5:119. The Menominee also see the Milky Way as the road of the dead. Miller, Stars of the First People, 66. The Passamaquoddy call it Ketagūswōt, the "Path of Spirits." Abby Langdon Alger, In Indian Tents: Stories Told by Penobscot, Passamaquoddy and Micmac Indians (Boston: Roberts Brothers, 1897) 130-133. The Arapaho call the Milky Way the "spirit (or ghost) road," thíguni-ba, James Mooney, The Ghost Dance Religion and the Sioux Outbreak of 1890, Fourteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 1892-93 (Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1896) 1015. The Cheyenne word for the Milky Way is Seozemeo, "the Road of the Dead." Rodolphe Charles Petter, English-Cheyenne Dictionary (Kettle Falls, Washington: Valdo Petter, 1915) 344, s.v. "dead"; 529, s.v. "Hades"; 706, s.v. "milk" (> "Milky Way"); 922, s.v. "road"; 1098, s.v. "way." Curtis, The North American Indian, 6:158. The Skidi Pawnee view the Milky Way as the path trod by the dead. Fox, "14. The Milky Way," in George A. Dorsey, Traditions of the Skidi Pawnee. The American Folk-Lore Society (Boston & New York: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1904) 57. The Apache see the Milky Way as a trail arching over the shoulders of the Goddess of Death that has been formed by the procession of departed souls. Curtis, The North American Indian, 1:34, 1:134. The Utes also call it "Ghost Road." Miller, Stars of the First Peoples, 132. For the Paiute it is Gosípa, "the Road of the Dead," Mooney, The Ghost Dance, 1053, 1056; they also have Nûmû-po, "Peoples' Trail," since the dead travel over it. The Paviotso (Northern Paiute) believe that the soul travels south on the Milky Way, Kasípo. Curtis, The North American Indian, 15:82, 15:134, 15:186 Footnote 3. The Southern Paiute refer to it as the "Ghost Road." Miller, Stars of the First People, 127, 130. In Creek it is, poyvfekcv en-nene, "the road of ghosts," Jack B. Martin and Margaret McKane Mauldin, A Dictionary of Creek/Muskogee (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2000) 80b, s.v. nene; 100b, ss.vv. poyvfekcv, poyvfekcv ennene; 272a, s.v. "Milky Way." The Klamath also see it as a ghosts' road. Miller, Stars of the First People, 122, 123. The Nez Percé c̓ewc̓e-wnim ’ískit means, "ghost trail." Haruo Aoki, Nez Percé Dictionary. Volume 122 of UC Publications in Linguistics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994) 1191, s.v. "Milky Way"; 67, s.v. c̓ewc̓e-wnim ’ískit. Curtis, The North American Indian, 8:193 s.v. ʦău-ʦău-nim-ish-kit. The Wisham call it wí-ḣŭt, "the road." Curtis, The North American Indian, 8:202 s.v. The Hill Patwin call it yé-mĕ-lé-lu-râ-bĕs, "road created." Curtis, The North American Indian, 14:226. In Maidu, it is mú-pu-pup-nom-bâ, "whitish road." Curtis, The North American Indian, 14:234. The Thompson Indians of British Columbia refer to the galaxy as "Tracks of the Dead." Miller, Stars of the First People, 113. The Spokane call it ⁿ-pa-ák shu-shu-wĕḧ, "the white road." Curtis, The North American Indian, 7:184 s.v. The Karok also believe that it is the path of the dead, as do the kindred Shasta. Miller, Stars of the First People, 138, 140. Curtis, The North American Indian, 13:123 (Shasta). The Atsugewi of northeastern California believed that the Milky Way was a dead man's trail. Miller, Stars of the First People, 141.
²⁵ Goodman, Lakota Star Knowledge, 22.
²⁶ Buechel and Manhart, Lakota Dictionary, s. v. Goodman, Lakota Star Knowledge, 22, 54; 57, #3. Deloria, Dakota Texts, 122.
²⁷ Goodman, Lakota Star Knowledge, 7, 23.
²⁸ Goodman, Lakota Star Knowledge, 6, Fig. 2; 7; 56, #4; 61, note to p. 22.
²⁹ Goodman, Lakota Star Knowledge, 6, Fig. 2.
³⁰ Goodman, Lakota Star Knowledge, 23; 61, note to p. 23.
^30.1 Goodman, Lakota Star Knowledge, 8. This hoop is the Race Track or Sacred Hoop (Ćaŋgléska Wakaŋ), a great circle of stars from the Pleiades through Rigel, Sirius, Procyon, Pollux, Castor, β Aurigæ, Capella, and back to the Pleiades (Goodman, Lakota Star Knowledge, 6).
³¹ Goodman, Lakota Star Knowledge, 58.
^31.0.0 Goodman, Lakota Star Knowledge, 18-19. The term kapemni does more to express the truly dynamic and kinetic nature of the double vortices than its two dimensional counterpart might suggest. The stem is pemni, which means "twisting." The prefix ka- is used "for a class of verbs whose action is performed by ... the wind." The word in origin must have denoted the actions of tornadoes and dust devils, but is now used to express their general twisting motion.
^31.0.1 Tomkins, Universal Indian Sign Language, 63; George Fronval and Daniel Dubois, translated by E. W. Egan, Indian Signs and Signals (London: Oak Tree Press, 1978) 14. Listed as synonyms of "medicine" are, "mysterious, unknown, holiness, luck, vision, dream, fortune, chance." William Tomkins, Universal Indian Sign Language of the Plains Indians of North America, 5th ed. (San Diego, published by the author, ca. 1931) 36.
^31.0.2 For the malinalli, see Alfredo López Austin, Tamoanchan, Tlalocan: Places of Mist. Trs. Bernard R. Ortiz de Montellano and Thelma Ortiz de Montellano (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 1997) 108-110, 113 Fig. 12m, 117 Fig. 14. See Codex Féjerváry-Mayer 28, where the trunk of the Tree of Tamoanchan is shown twice in the form of a malinalli.
^31.0.3 For the concept of the Centre and its associated symbolism, see Eliade, Patterns in Comparative Religion, 81, 367-387; Mircea Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane. The Nature of Religion. The Significance of Religious Myth, Symbolism, and Ritual within Life and Culture (New York: Harcourt, Brace, & World, Inc., 1959) 40-42, 49, 57-58, 64-65; Mircea Eliade, Images and Symbols: Studies in Religious Symbolism (New York: Sheed and Ward, 1969) 42-43; William C. Beane and William G. Doty, edd., Myths, Rites, Symbols: A Mircea Eliade Reader, 2 vols. (New York: Harper & Row, 1975) 2:373; Alwyn Rees and Brinley Rees, Celtic Heritage: Ancient Tradition in Ireland and Wales (London: Thames & Hudson, 1961) Ch. VII.
^31.1 Ala-Tu-M2, of Moundville, Alabama. Brain and Phillips, Shell Gorgets, 380. Clarence Bloomfield Moore, "Certain Aboriginal Remains of the Black Warrior River," Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 13 (1905): 125-244 [134 Fig. 5; cf. 133 Fig. 4.]. Fundaburk and Foreman, Sun Circles and Human Hands, Plate 94 above. Vincas P. Steponaitis and Vernon J. Knight, "Moundville Art in Historical and Social Context," in Hero, Hawk, and Open Hand, 166-181 [174 Fig. 13]. Knight and Franke, "Identification of a Moth/Butterfly Supernatural in Mississippian Art," 137 Fig. 6.1. 
^31.2 Richard Broxton Onians, The Origins of European Thought about the Body, the Mind, the Soul, the World, Time, and Fate (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1951) 96-97.
^31.3 Moore, "Certain Aboriginal Remains of the Black Warrior River," Fig. 62 (Moundville, on a pot) = Fundaburk and Foreman, Sun Circles and Human Hands, Plate 17-VII-a. Like a letter "D" rotated 90° to the right () taken to be an eye (but is perhaps a mouth) — Fundaburk and Foreman, Sun Circles and Human Hands, Plate 17-VII-d, Plate 23 (lower left) from Craig Mound at Spiro; Plate 94, the Rattlesnake Disc from Moundville. Moore, "Certain Aboriginal Remains of the Black Warrior River," Fig. 21 = Fundaburk and Foreman, Plate 113 left center row (Moundville).
^31.4 Moore, Moundville Revisited. Crystal River Revisited. Mounds of the Lower Chattahoochee and Lower Flint Rivers. Notes on the Ten Thousand Islands, Florida, Fig. 45 (Moundville) = Fundaburk and Foreman, Sun Circles and Human Hands, Plate 17-VII-b. Fundaburk and Foreman, Plate 36, cols. a and b; Plate 37-b-3,-5; Plate 55 (target or hole).
^31.5 Cross — Gates P. Thruston, The Antiquities of Tennessee and the Adjacent States (Cincinnati: Robert Clarke & Co., 1890) Fig. 40 = Fundaburk and Foreman, Sun Circles and Human Hands, Plate 17-VII-c, Plate 27 center left (Spiro), Plate 28 below, Plate 33. Target — Fundaburk and Foreman, Plate 36, col. b.
^31.6 This is Mo-Py-SM2 of Saint Mary's assemblage in Perry County, Missouri. Brain and Phillips, Shell Gorgets, 46, 275. MacCurdy, "Shell Gorgets from Missouri," 412 Fig. 77. Fundaburk and Foreman, Sun Circles and Human Hands, Plate 50. Of essentially the same design, see the slightly more damaged Ga-Brt-E139 from Burial 223 in Mound C at Etowah, Georgia. Brain and Phillips, Shell Gorgets, 147, 422a.
^31.7 x
³² Thompson, Maya Hieroglyphic Writing, 132a.
³³ Eduardo Noguera, "Los altares de sacrificio de Tizatlán, Tlaxcala” in Ruinas de Tizatlán,  ed. Augustín García Vega, in Publicaciones de la Secretaría de Educación Pública, Telleres Gráficos de la Nación, 15, #11 (1927): 24-64, plates 1-4.
^33.1 This is especially common in Codex Borgia (15; 16, three times; 23; 50; 52, three times; 56, carrying a staff surmounted by a closed right hand; 57; 58; 70; 73; 76); Codex Fejéváry-Mayer (18); Codex Magliabecchiano (76r, 8 detached hands total); Codex Vaticanus B (7, bottom center panel: skull on top, two crossed bones, and a detached hand with the index finger touching the thumb).
³⁴ Thompson, Maya Hieroglyphic Writing, 132a.
³⁵ A
³⁶ A
³⁷ A
⁴⁰ A
⁴¹ Caleb Atwater, Remarks Made on a Tour to Prairie du Chien thence to Washington City in 1829, Reprint Edition (New York: Arno Press, 1975 [1831]), and Writings of Caleb Atwater, Travel in America Series (Carlisle: Applewood Books, 2007) 98/275.
⁴² A
⁴³ A

§9. Redhorn, Orion, and the Long Nosed God.

¹ A
² A
³ A
⁴ A
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¹⁰ Stephen Williams and John M. Goggin, "The Long Nosed God Mask in Eastern United States," The Missouri Archaeologist, 18, #3 (1956): 4-72. See also Timothy R. Pauketat, Cahokia: Ancient America's Great City on the Mississippi (New York: Viking, 2009) 143-147. LNG maskettes are not without precedence in the south. At Chipal 2 (1000-1200), we have, "Stone-maskettes, found together in a tomb. They were probably lashed to wands. Height of largest 3 inches." The Art of the Ancient Maya, ed. Alfred Vincent Kidder (Detroit: Crowell, 1959) 116, Pl. 89. These pieces reside in the University Museum of Philadelphia, catalogue numbers, NA 11371, NA 11375, NA 11373. See Thompson, Maya Hieroglyphic Writing, 145a, for a long nosed god who is connected to water, and also the calendar in his capacity as god of the number 13.
¹¹ William H. Holmes, Art in Shell of the Ancient Americans. Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Issue 2 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1883) 179-305 [297, plate 70].
¹² This is the short-nosed variety of prosopic maskette as seen on the ears of the pipe sculpture known as "Big Boy" (q. v.). James A. Brown, The Spiro Ceremonial Center: the Archaeology of Arkansas Valley Caddoan Culture in Eastern Oklahoma, 2 vols. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, #29 (Ann Arbor : Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, 1996) 523b.
¹³ Duane C. Anderson, "A Long-Nosed God Mask from Northwest Iowa," American Antiquity, 40, #3 (July, 1975): 326-329 [327].
¹⁴ Mound 3, Yokem Mound Group; Pike County, Illinois. Whelk shell, +1200-1400. National Museum of the American Indian, 24/3507.
¹⁵ Anderson, "A Long-Nosed God Mask from Northwest Iowa," 328. The profile shown was engraved on the inside of the shell, and the complementary profile was engraved in the corresponding spot on the outside of the shell.
¹⁶ Carol Diaz-Granados, "Marking Stone, Land, Body, and Spirit," in Hero, Hawk, and Open Hand: American Indian Art of the Ancient Midwest and South (New Haven: Yale University Press and The Art Institute of Chicago, 2004) 148, fig. 20.
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⁵⁰ James B. Griffin, "Eastern North American Archaeology — A Summary," Science, 156, #3772 (14 April 1967): 175-191 [190c]. "The merchants, or pochtecas, had Yacatecuhtli as their god. They were long distance traders, so some may have been in Cahokia. The maskettes may be a representation of their god." Charles Hudson, Southeastern Indians (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1978) 88-90.
⁵¹ "6. Wąkx!istowi, the Man with the Human Head Earrings," in Alanson Skinner, "Traditions of the Iowa Indians," The Journal of American Folklore, 38, #150 (October-December, 1925): 427-506 [457-458].
⁵² "Blue Horn's Nephews" (q.v.), pp. 57-60, in Paul Radin, Winnebago Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, ca. 1912) Notebook 58: 1-104 (missing its ending). The lost ending of this story (pp. 104-107) was found inserted between pp. 107 and 108 of "Coonskin Coat," in Paul Radin, Winnebago Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, n.d.) Notebook 59.
⁵³ Bear's Arm, "3. The Sacred Arrow", in Martha Warren Beckwith, Myths and Hunting Stories of the Mandan and Hidatsa Sioux, Publications of the Folk-Lore Foundation (Poughkeepsie: Vassar College) #10 (1930): 22-52 [42].
⁵⁴ Ronald Goodman, Lakota Star Knowledge: Studies in Lakota Stellar Theology (Rosebud Sioux Reservation: Siñte Gleska University, 1992) 39. He continues —

The tioṡṗaye would seek ways, perhaps through a ceremony, to interpret these marks. Among the Laǩoṫa, twins are recongized as special. Some of them are born with marks indicating a previous life. Also some children at age 2, 3 and 4 recollect and speak of aspects of their past lives which are verifiable, such as old camp sites. Sometimes they use words long out of common usage. It is recognized that some twins come back to restore knowledge which would otherwise remain lost to the Laǩoṫa people.

⁵⁵ George A. Dorsey, The Arapaho Sun Dance: The Ceremony of the Offerings Lodge. Field Columbian Museum, Publication 75; Anthropological Series, vol. 4 (Chicago: the Museum, June, 1903) 180, 182.
⁵⁶ Dorsey, The Arapaho Sun Dance: The Ceremony of the Offerings Lodge, 180.
⁵⁷ George A. Dorsey, Traditions of the Caddo (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997 [1905]) 33.
⁵⁸ Bierhorst, A Nahuatl-English Dictionary, 401-402, s. v. yac(a)-tl⁵.
⁵⁹ Alfred M. Tozzer and Glover M. Allen, Animal Figures of the Maya Codices, Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Achaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, 4, #3 (Cambridge: the Museum, February, 1910) 350.
⁶⁰ Taube, The Major Gods of Ancient Yucatan, 79b, 81b-84, 88. Miller and Taube, An Illustrated Dictionary of the Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya, 128, s. v. "owls." Thompson, Maya Hieroglyphic Writing, 114-115.
⁶¹ Schellhas, "Representation of Deities of the Maya Manuscripts," 41. Taube, The Major Gods of Ancient Yucatan, 81b.
⁶² Thompson, Maya Hieroglyphic Writing, 115. The word moan means, "drizzle, mist." Taube, The Major Gods of Ancient Yucatan, 79b, 81b-84, 88. Seler, Collected Works, 4:615.
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⁶⁴ Phillips and Brown, Pre-Columbian Shell Engraving, Part 1, 190 Fig. 247.
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⁷³ Munro S. Edmonson, Quiché-English Dictionary. Middle American Research Institute, Tulane University, Publication 30 (New Orleans: Tulane University Press, 1965) 71, s.v. mazat.
⁷⁴ Hall, "The Cultural Background of Mississippian Symbolism," 245.
⁷⁵ Learner’s Dictionary, Hocąk–English/English–Hocąk, edd. Johannes Helmbrecht and Christian Lehmann. Arbeitspapiere des Seminars für Sprachwissenschaft der Universität Erfurt Seminar für Sprachwissenschaft, no. 21. 2d ed. (Erfurt: the Editors, May, 2006), s. v.
⁷⁶ Mary Carolyn Marino, A Dictionary of Winnebago: An Analysis and Reference Grammar of the Radin Lexical File (Ph.D. Thesis, University of California, Berkeley, December 14, 1968 [69-14,947]), s. v. Marino's wordlist was based on the vocabulary slips of Paul Radin.
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¹⁴⁷ Alfredo Chavero, "La Piedra del Sol," Anales del Museo Nacional 2 (1882): 3-46, 107-126, 233-266, 291-310, 403-430 [12v].

§10. Transmission.

¹⁵ T. Dale Stewart, and Paul F. Titterington, "Filed Indian Teeth from Illinois," Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, 34, #10 (October 15, 1944): 317-321 [the inset shows a set of incisors from a grave in Cahokia, drawn from 320 verso, Fig. 1E]. T. Dale Stewart, and Paul F. Titterington, "More Filed Teeth from the United States," Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, 36, #8 (August 15, 1946): 259-261. Paul F. Titterington, "Filed Teeth," in Cahokia Brought to Life: An Artifactual Story of America's Great Monument, ed. Robert E Grimm (Saint Louis: Greater St. Louis Archaeological Society, 1950) 31-32. Preston Holder and T. Dale Stewart, "A Complete Find of Filed Teeth from the Cahokia Mounds in Illinois," Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, 48, #11 (November, 1958): 349-359. James B. Griffin, "Mesoamerica and the Eastern United States in Prehistoric Times," in Archaeological Frontiers and External Connections, ed. Gordon F. Ekholm and Gordon R. Willey, Volume 4 of the Handbook of Middle American Indians (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1966) 111-131 [129]. Gregory Perino, "Additional Discoveries of Filed Teeth in the Cahokia Area," American Antiquity, 32, #4 (October, 1967): 538-542. George R. Milner and Clark Spencer Larsen, "Teeth as Artifacts of Human Behavior: Intentional Mutilation and Accidental Modification," in Advances in Dental Anthropology, ed. Marc A. Kelley and Clark Spencer Larsen (New York: Wiley-Liss, 1991) 357-378. Nancy Marie White and Richard A. Weinstein, "The Mexican Connection and the Far West of the U.S. Southeast," American Antiquity, 73, # 2 (April, 2008): 227-277 [229b, 259a-260a]. For the classification of sculpted teeth in Mesoamerica, see Daniel F. Rubín de la Borbolla, "Types of Tooth Mutilation Found in Mexico," American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 26 (1940): 349–365. Javier Romero, "Dental Mutilation, Trephination and Cranial Deformation," in Physical Anthropology, ed. Thomas D. Stewart, in Handbook of Middle American Indians, Vol. 9 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1970) 50–67.
¹⁶ White and Weinstein, "The Mexican Connection and the Far West of the U.S. Southeast," 259b. Stewart and Titterington, "Filed Indian Teeth from Illinois," 320.