Notes to
Redhorn, Mixcoatl, Three Deer and Orion

Preface

¹ Durán also gives the name Yemaxtli. Fray Diego Durán, Book of the Gods and Rites and The Ancient Calendar, trs., edd. Fernando Horcasitas and Doris Heyden (Norman: University of Oklahoma, 1971) 141. He was called Mixcóatl by the Chichimecs, Otomi, and Matlatzinca; Camaxtli was most particularly the god of Tlaxcala and Huexotzinco. Thomas Athol Joyce, Mexican Archaeology: An Introduction to the Archaeology of the Mexican and Mayan Civilizations of Pre-Spanish America (New York: Putnam, 1914) 32. The god Taras is said to be another form of Mixcoatl worshipped by the Tarascans. Manuel Orozco y Berra, Historia antigua y de la conquista de México (Tip. de G. A. Esteva, 1880) 1:107, citing Sahagun, 3:138.

Attributes

The God of the Hunt

^0.1 Paul Radin, "Chief of the Heroka," Winnebago Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society) Notebook #33, p. 65.
^0.2 Paul Radin, "The Man's Head," Winnebago Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society) Notebook #51.
^0.3 Radin, "Chief of the Heroka," 49; Susman records the breathing as ahé. Amelia Susman, Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1939) Book 10: 79. Informant: Sam Blowsnake.
¹ Durán, Book of the Gods and Rites and The Ancient Calendar, 141.
² Eduard Seler, Collected Works in Mesoamerican Linguistics and Archaeology (English Translations of German Papers from Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur Amerikanischen Sprach- und Alterthumskunde), translated by Charles P. Bowditch & Frank E. Comparato; J. Eric S. Thompson and Francis B. Richardson, edd., 2d ed. (Lancaster, California: Labyrinthos, 1996) 3:260.
³ Durán, Book of the Gods and Rites and The Ancient Calendar, 143.
^3.1 Seler, Collected Works, 4:219a.
⁴ Durán, Book of the Gods and Rites and The Ancient Calendar, 143, 335 plate 13. See the wooden idol shown in Seler, Collected Works, 5:56 fig 70a-d.
⁵ Seler, Collected Works, 5:41a.
⁶ Seler, Collected Works, 5:57a.
⁷ Durán, Book of the Gods and Rites and The Ancient Calendar, 148.
⁸ Durán, Book of the Gods and Rites and The Ancient Calendar, 456.
^8.1 Michel Graulich, Mythes et rituels du Mexique ancien préhispanique. 2d ed. Mémoire de la Classe des Lettres, Collection in-8°, third series, vol. 21 (Louvain-la-Neuve: Académie royale de Belgique, 2000) 333.
⁹ Radin, The Winnebago Tribe, 295. Informant: a member of the Bear Clan.
²⁰ Durán, Book of the Gods and Rites and The Ancient Calendar, 142. Durán's says of the celebration in Huexotzinco, "It was the greatest of all, and was received with all the applause in the world, with a maximum of merrymaking." Below is a tabulation of select dates (Alfonso Caso calibration) when the Aztec day of 1-Quecholli would have fallen.

The asterisk (*) indicates the calendar name of Mixcoatl. An interesting arithmetical discovery is that there are only four days on which 1-Quecholli can fall: Water, Lizard, Rain, Jaguar (in that order). Just like the four years, they too count down by one every solar year (365 days). Each day name is in one-one correspondence with a year name: Water-Rabbit, Lizard-House, Rain-Flint, Jaguar-Reed. Every day number is one unit less that the year numbers, e.g., 1-Lizard of 2-House, but 13-Rain of 1-Flint, as the number system counts to 13 and starts over with 1.

The following table shows how to calculate the various tonapohualli dates for each of the days of Quecholli. Where the coefficient exceeds 13, subtract 13 from it to get the correct value.

The vertical order of days (down a column) is the following: Jaguar, Eagle, Vulture, Movement, Flint, Rain, Flower, Crocodile, Wind, House, Lizard, Snake, Death, Deer, Rabbit, Water, Dog, Monkey, Grass, Reed. It is interesting to note that 5-Quecholli and 10-Quecholli (the last day of the festivities) fall on days whose four names are precisely those given to years, and in the same order (Flint, House, Rabbit, Reed).

Herokaga and the Heroka, Mixcoatl and the Mimixcoa.

¹ John Rave, "A Wakjonkaga Myth," in Paul Radin, Winnebago Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society) Notebook #37: 1-70 [55-56].
^1.1 The Omaha, who are related to the Hocągara, tell of a race of dwarves that bear some resemblance to the Heroka. "The Wild People or Ga-da-zhe, were dwarfs who made their abode in caverns. They had tiny arrows which they shot at such human being as had offended them; their arrows penetrated the flesh without breaking the skin, but showed beneath the surface; and, by and by, serious results might be feared. These dwarfs carried rattles of deer's claws on their arms; they used to dispute with the hunters after they had killed deer, etc., claiming the game for themselves; but they always vanished as soon as the hunter thrust his spear or ramrod into the wound. These dwarfs abducted people, or, rather, caused them to wander from home and become crazy; sometimes such people never returned home." James Owen Dorsey, "Siouan Folk-lore and Mythologic Notes," The American Antiquarian and Oriental Journal, 7, #2 (March, 1885): 105-108 [107].
^1.2 Rev. Gilbert L. Wilson, "The Iktomi Myth," Collections of the State Historical Society of North Dakota, 1 (1906): 474-475 [475]. Another source says, "I have also asked old men of Crow, Cheyenne, and Blackfoot tribes about arrowheads, and all told me the same thing: Old Man Coyote, Wihio, Napi — the legendary culture heroes, or tricksters — made them." Reginald Laubin and Gladys Laubin, American Indian Archery, Volume 4. Volume 154 of Civilization of the American Indian Series (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991) 118. These tribes generally make arrowheads out of bone.
^1.3 Wilson, "The Iktomi Myth," 475. The reverend goes on to say, "While we were discussing the subject a big Sioux stalked into the shop. Mr. Allen turned toward him. 'Arrow-head — flint — how made?' he asked. The Indian laid the flint in his palm. 'Iktomi, — leetle spider men — so big,' and he indicated a little being some four inches high. ... This story is wide spread among the Teton Dakotas [Lakotas]. It was told me, exactly as above, by a Santee, and to a friend of mine by a Yankton Dakota." Wilson, "The Iktomi Myth," 474-475. The Sioux make the exact same claim that the Hocągara do: the flint arrowheads are not made by them, but are found lying on the ground.
^1.4 Charles Edward Brown, Wigwam Tales (Madison, Wisc.: Charles E. Brown, 1930) 12. See also, Joseph Brown, Teaching Spirits: Understanding Native American Religious Traditions (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010) 58.
^1.5 "[There is a] widespread Dakota tradition to the effect that arrowheads of stone now found are not the work of human beings but of the spider Inktomi ..." Amos E. Oneroad and Alanson B. Skinner, Being Dakota: Tales and Traditions of the Sisseton and Wahpeton, ed. Laura L. Anderson (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society, 2005) 107. "... folklore has it that those found on the ground are said to have been made by black spiders." Oneroad and Skinner, Being Dakota: Tales and Traditions of the Sisseton and Wahpeton, 108.
^1.6 "Unktomi and the Arrowheads," in Marie L. McLaughlin, Myths and Legends of the Sioux (Bismarck, North Dakota: Bismarck Tribune Company, 1916) 77.
^1.7 Wilson D. Wallis, "Beliefs and Tales of the Canadian Dakota," The Journal of American Folklore, 36, #139 (Jan.-Mar., 1923): 36-101 [38].
² "Red-Woman and Flint-like-young-man," in Lowie, "Myths and Traditions of the Crow Indians," 128-133 [129].
^2.1 McCleary, The Stars We Know, 46.
^2.2 McCleary, The Stars We Know, 45.
^2.3 Frank Bird Linderman, Pretty-Shield: Medicine Woman of the Crows (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2003) 26.
^2.4 McCleary The Stars We Know, 70.
^2.5 "Corn-silk and the Seven Stars," in Edward S. Curtis, The North American Indian, being a Series of Volumes Picturing and Describing the Indians of the United States and Alaska. Ed. Frederick Webb Hodge. 20 vols. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1907-1930) 4:117-126 [123-124].
^2.5.1 James Mooney, History, Myths, and Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees (Asheville, North Carolina: Bright Mountain Books, 1992 [1891, 1900]) 334.
^2.6 J. Eris S. Thompson, Maya History and Religion (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1970) 308-309.
^2.7 Diego de Landa, Yucatán at the Time of the Spanish Encounter [Relación de las cosas de Yucatán], trs. and ed. Louis E. V. Nevaer. Bilingual Edition (Coral Gables: Hispanic Eonomics, 2013) Chapter XL, 100-101 (= 241 Spanish text).
^2.8 Karl Taube, The Major Gods of Ancient Yucatan. Studies in Pre-Columbian Art and Archaeology, No. 32 (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1992) 61. Linda A. Brown, "Planting the Bones: Hunting Ceremonialism at Contemporary and Nineteenth-CenturyShrines in the Guatemalan Highlands," Latin American Antiquity, 16, #2 (June, 2005) 131-146 [138-139].
^2.9 Justin Kerr, The Maya Vase Book, vol. 1 (New York: Kerr Associates, 1989) 74.
^2.10 Karl A. Taube, 2003 "Ancient and Contemporary Maya Conceptions about Forest and Field," in The Lowlands Maya Area: Three Millennia at the Human-Wildland Interface, ed. A. Gomez-Pompa, M. F. Allen, S. L. Fedick and J. J. Jiménez-Osornio, (New York: Food Products Press, 2003) 461–492 [473].
³ John Bierhorst, History and Mythology of the Aztecs: the Codex Chimalpopoca (Tucson: The University of Arizona Press, 1992) 189.
⁴ Leyenda de los Soles, 78:30.
⁵ Leyenda de los Soles, 78:30-79:15. For the translation of the name and their associations with the cardinal points, see Seler, Collected Works, 5:51b.
¹⁰ Paul Radin, "The Chief of the Heroka," Winnebago Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, n.d.) Notebook 33: 1-66 [65]; cf. Paul Radin, "Redhorn's Nephews," Notebooks, Freeman #3860 (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1908-1913) Winnebago IV, #7a: 1-16.
¹¹ "The Chief of the Heroka," 41.
¹² "The Chief of the Heroka," 49.
¹³ "The Chief of the Heroka," 48.
¹⁴ Historia de los Mexicanos por sus pinturas, 623.
¹⁵ Annals of Cuauhtitlan, 1:10-17.
¹⁶ "The Chief of the Heroka," 65.
¹⁷ Leyenda de los Soles, 75:25-75:33.

A Place by the Fire

¹ Paul Radin, "Intcohorúcika," Winnebago Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society) Notebook #14: 1-67 [67].
² William Lipkind, Winnebago Grammar (New York: King's Crown Press, 1945). See also, "Hocąk has a set of three auxiliary verbs which are called positionals because they indicate the spatial position of the subject: horizontal, neutral or sitting, and standing. This one [-nąk] can be translated 'be in a neutral or sitting position'." "This form [-ną̄k] is the plural form of -nąk above. It has no positional meaning and can be translated simply as 'they are'. It is neutral with respect to the spatial position of the subject." Learner’s Dictionary, Hocąk–English/English–Hocąk, edd. Johannes Helmbrecht and Christian Lehmann. Arbeitspapiere des Seminars für Sprachwissenschaft der Universität Erfurt Seminar für Sprachwissenschaft, no. 21. 2d ed. (Erfurt: the Editors, May, 2006).
^2.1 Edward Winslow Gifford, Culture Element Distributions, XII: Apache-Pueblo. University of California Anthropological Records, 4: 1. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1940) 53-154 [155, no. 2266].
^2.2Miller, Stars of the First People, 211.
^2.3 Evon Vogt, "Zinacanteco Astronomy," Mexicon 19, #6 (1997) 110-116 [112].
^2.4 Miller, Stars of the First People, 169.
^2.5 Miller, Stars of the First People, 210.
^2.6 A survey of stars observable to the naked eye shows that there are really not too many triads of stars that are bunched together apart from the Belt Stars of Orion. Here is a survey of the potential candidates:

	Aquila	Aquila is a good candidate, with three stars very tightly bunched together: Tarazed (mag. 2.71), Altair (mag. 0.75), Alshain (mag. 3.68). The third star is rather faint, and there are other stars of the fourth magnitude interpersed among the trio. There are no distinct outlying stars that could serve as the four hands. Aquila is almost on the other side of the celestial sphere from Orion.
	Canis Major	There are three bright stars in a bunch, but there are too many lesser stars in the same bundle and no obvious set of four hand stars.
	Columbo	The three stars with Pheat in the center, are not very tightly bunched together: Wazn (mag. 3.09), Pheat (mag. 2.62), ε Columbæ (mag. 3.84). One of the candidates for a hand star (γ Columbæ, mag. 4.34) is more closely bundled with the center than the other hands.
	Lupus	Lupus has an elbow-shaped trio of stars. However, there are so many other outlying stars that no four of them stand out as hand stars. At the lattitude of Madison, Wisconsin, these stars are so low in the sky that they are usually not visible.
	Orion	Orion has three belt stars in tight alignment with four outlying stars (Betelgeuse, Bellatrix, Rigel, and Cursa) that can serve as hand stars. The sword stars are also three bunched together, but the middle one, M42, is a nebula and appears faint and hazy.
	Sagittarius	Sagittarius has so many sets of three that none of them stand out, and it is hard to see four outlying stars that can serve as hands.
	Scorpius	Antares is the center of three stars, τ Scorpii (mag. 2.81), Antares (mag. 1.03), Al Niyat (mag. 2.87); but there are no candidates for the four hand stars. This trio can be ruled out, since Antares, the center star is neither yellow nor white, but is distinctly red. Shaula is another trio in Scorpius, but this cluster is really a cluster of six.
	Taurus	The three stars to the right of Bellatrix form a unit, but they are not very prominent: π3 Orionis (mag. 4.34), π2 Orionis (mag. 3.18), π Orionis (mag. 3.65); nor are there four obvious candidates for the hand stars.

The primary difficiency that almost all of these candidate asterisms have is a lack of significance otherwise.
³ The pagination is from the more accessible presentation of McKern's text in David Lee Smith, Folklore of the Winnebago Tribe (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1997) 64-82 [76]. The original text is from W. C. McKern, "A Winnebago Myth," Yearbook, Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee, 9 (1929): 215-230.
⁴ Paul Radin, "The Red Man," Winnebago Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society) Notebook 6: 1-72. Paul Radin, "The Chief of the Heroka," Winnebago Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, n.d.) Notebook 33: 1-66.
^4.0 John Rave, "A Wakjonkaga Myth," in Paul Radin, Winnebago Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society) Notebook #37: 1-70 [55-56].
^4.1 Paul Radin, The Winnebago Tribe (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990 [1923]) 63.
^4.2 For comparison, here are the data for the First Bear Moon:

It can be seen from this sample that except for 2 January, the full moon of the First Bear Month is always significantly more distant than the full moon of the Deer Antler Shedding Month.
^4.2.1 Daniel P. Metz, Jack Ward Thomas, and Dale E. Toweill, North American Elk: Ecology and Management (Washington [D.C.]: Smithsonian Institution Press, 2002 [1982]).
^4.3 Paul Radin, The Winnebago Tribe (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990 [1923]) 76-77. Informant for monthly activities was a member of the Bear Clan.
^4.4 Paul Radin, The Winnebago Tribe (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990 [1923]) 245-246.
^4.5 Rev. James Owen Dorsey, "Winnebago Gentes, including Personal Names Belonging to each Gens" (National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution: T.D., 1878-79?), cat. #4800 Dorsey Papers, Winnebago (319). Nancy Oestreich Lurie, "A Check List of Treaty Signers by Clan Affiliation," Journal of the Wisconsin Indians Research Institute, 2, #1 (June, 1966): 50-73 [72, #123 (Hawk Clan)]. Lurie remarks, "Clan uncertain; name suggests Elk, Deer or Buffalo, but recent individuals bearing this name belonged to the Warrior (Hawk) and other Bird Clans." John Kinzie records a Hay-zhunk-kee-kaw residing at the village of Four Lakes, No. 1 (Lake Mendota). John H. Kinzie, Winnebago Village List (Indian Office Files, Michigan Territory, 1829-1832) Schedule of Number and Names of Villages, Lodges, and Persons, #11.
^4.6 John Rave, "A Wakjonkaga Myth," in Paul Radin, Winnebago Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society) Notebook #37: 1-70 [54-56].
^4.7 Éja ciserecižą geže wąkikinųpra kerepanaižąwiže. Ciserecga hoci hireže. Hižą xetegi, Kųnųra, ara jopiwiwiže. Paul Radin, "Intcohorúcika," Winnebago Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society) Notebook #14: 1-67 [1].
^4.8 Paul Radin, "Intcohorúcika," Winnebago Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society) Notebook #14: 1-67 [12-14].
⁹⁹ Paul Radin, The Winnebago Tribe (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990 [1923]) 63.
⁵ Horokanakąnąbᵉra skanąga, co, hánąga šujanąga zinisganąki [h]ereže, Įcohorúšika. Paul Radin, "Intcohorúcika," Winnebago Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society) Notebook #14: 1-67 [67].
⁶ James R. Murie, Ceremonies of the Pawnee. Studies in the Anthropology of North American Indians (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press for the American Indian Studies Research Institute, Indiana University, 1989) 42.
⁷ Paul Radin, Winnebago Hero Cycles: A Study in Aboriginal Literature (Baltimore: Waverly Press, 1948) 115-118 [117-118]. See "The Race for the Chief's Daughter" (§1 of the Redhorn Cycle).
¹ x
¹ x
^5.1 Susan Milbrath, Star Gods of the Maya: Astronomy in Art, Folklore, and Calendars (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1999) 252h.
⁶ Thomas F. Kehoe and Alice B. Kehoe, Solstice-aligned Boulder Configurations in Saskatchewan. Canadian Ethnology Service, Mercury Series, Paper 48 (Ottawa: National Museum of Man, 1979) 25; David Vogt, "Medicine Wheel Astronomy," in Clive N. Ruggles and Nicholas J. Saunders (edd.), Astronomies and Cultures (Niwot: University of Colorado Press, 1993) 163-201 [174].
⁷ Anthony F. Aveni, Skywatchers (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2001) 37; Barbara Tedlock, The Road of Light: Theory and Practice of Maya Skywatching, in Anthony Aveni (ed), The Sky in Mayan Literature (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992) 18-42 [29].
⁸ Annals of Cuauhtitlan, 1:5-9, cf. 3:27; Michel Graulich, "Las Peregrinaciones Aztecas y el Ciclo de Mixcóatl," Estudios de Cultura Náhuatl, 11 (1974): 311-354 [327].

The Stag God and His Deer Wife.

¹ Andrews and Hasig analyze the word this way:

Mixcoacihuatl [i.e., Mixcōācihuātl] (Mixcoatl's-woman or Woman-dedicated-to-Mixcoatl). A compound noun: embed, Mixcoatl; matrix, (CIHUĀ)-TL, "woman." Mixcoacihuatl is the female deer. The name suggests that it is the preferred prey of Mixcoatl, the hunter.

Hernando Ruiz de Alarcón, Treatise on the heathen superstitions that today live among the Indians native to this New Spain, edd. James Richard Andrews and Ross Hassig. Volume 164 of Civilization of the American Indian series (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999 [1629]) 231.
² Annals of Cuauhtitlan, 3:50.
³ Walter Krickeberg, Las antiguas culturas mexicanas. Trs. Sita Garst and Jasmin Reuter (Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1961 [1956]) 140.
⁴ Located on the volcanic rock of the Cerro de la Campana near the village of Guadalupe in Pueblo. Seler, Collected Works, 6:1b fig. 8; 6:2a. Reproduced in Guilhem Olivier, "Sacred Bundles, Arrows, and New Fire: Foundation and Power in the Mapa de Cuauhtinchan No. 2," in Cave, City, and Eagle's Nest, 288a fig. 10.7a. The stag foot earbob is also found in the Mixcoatl portrayed in the Codex Magliabecchiano, 13.3, folio 42r, reproduced in Seler, Collected Works, 6:2a fig. 9.
⁵ Durán, Book of the Gods and Rites and The Ancient Calendar, 145, 464.
⁶ Durán, Book of the Gods and Rites and The Ancient Calendar, 145.
^6.1 See Alfred M. Tozzer and Glover M. Allen, "Animal Figures in the Maya Codices," Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology, Ethnology, Harvard University, 4, #3 (Feb. 1910): 273-372 (with an addendumm of plates) [350] who took this to be God M. Gabrielle Vail and Christine Hernández, The Maya Codices Database, Version 4.1 (2013), Madrid Codex: 50b-50b Frame: 1. Gabrielle Vail and Christine Hernández, The Maya Codices Database, Version 4.1 (2013), Madrid Codex: 51c-51c, Frame: 1. Her description of Madrid 50b-51c: "This circular almanac features God Y, an earth and hunt deity who is characterized by an empty eye socket (here colored blue). He wears a woven cloth shirt and a deer head as a headdress, with two Kimi glyphs representing skulls at its base. He holds a spear across his shoulders and a hook (used for hunting?) in his other hand. The four directional glyphs frame the scene, which occurs against a reddish brown background. God Y appears to be standing in the grass."
^6.2 Gabrielle Vail and Christine Hernández, The Maya Codices Database, Version 4.1 (2013), Madrid Codex: 65-72, Frame: 23. Her description of this panel: "The deer/hunt god (God Y) sits with his arms bound behind his back. He wears a headdress consisting of a deer’s head that has no antlers. An object with Kawak (stone) markings connects the rope binding God Y and the deer head. A second object with stone markings, this one in the shape of a bird, appears in front of God Y."
^6.3 "If this imagery can be related to a 0 Pop date (as suggested by reference to the scene picturing God A´), then it highlights the capture of prisoners for sacrifice in the years 1451 and 1455 (God Y in frame 12; Fig 7.1) ..." Gabrielle Vail and Victoria R. Brucker, "Haab Dates in the Madrid Codex," in The Madrid Codex: New Approaches to Understading an Ancient Maya Manuscript, edd. Gabrielle Vail and Anthony Aveni (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2004) 171-214 [199]. "The use of a deer head headdress in this case may indicate that the figure is a mortal impersonating God Y." James V. Rauff, "The Katun Prophecies of the Paris Codex" (1981). Master's Theses. 3197, page 75.
^6.4 ká'anal kéeh wíinik y-atan wúuk sip u mùuk. Gabrielle Vail and Christine Hernández, The Maya Codices Database, Version 4.1 (2013), Dresden Codex Hieroglyphic Text Almanac: 13c - 14c, Frame: 1, Caption: 1; Gabrielle Vail and Christine Hernández, The Maya Codices Database, Version 4.1 (2013), Dresden Codex: 13c-14c, Frame: 1.
⁷ The sister-in-law is one of the primary joking relatives, and is therefore expected to tease her brother-in-law. Verbal teasing is ražic, which is contrasted to ružic, a teasing by action. The episode in question occurs in Paul Radin, Winnebago Hero Cycles: A Study in Aboriginal Literature (Baltimore: Waverly Press, 1948) 117.
⁸ Paul Radin, Winnebago Hero Cycles, 115.

The Lunar Wife

¹ x

§6. Marriage to the Condemned

¹ x

Chapter 8. The Uxoricide

¹ x

Chapter 9. Man-Eaters: Jaguars, Bears, and Giants

¹ The right to eat the hip is given to the hunter who has made the kill, and may help explain the point of attack. Human sacrifices are treated in a similar manner, the hip being eaten by the man who originally captured the victim.
² Louise M. Burkhart, “Moral Deviance in Sixteenth Century Nahua and Christian Thought: The Rabbit and the Deer,” Journal of Latin American Lore, 12 (1986): 107-139 [118-121].
³ Guilhem Olivier, "Venados melómanos y cazadores lúbricos: cacería, música y erotismo en Mesoamérica," Estudios de cultura náhuatl 47 (Jan.-June, 2014): 121-168 [144]. Among the Aztecs, the disilute life of prostitutes was described as the "road of the rabbit and deer." L. Burkhart, L., "Moral Deviance in Sixteenth-century Nahua and Christian Thought: the Rabbit and the Deer," Journal of Latin American Lore 12, #2 (1986): 107–39 [113, 122]. As to the opposite lifestyle, "The pugnacious characteristics of the animal [jaguar] are also transmitted to those born under this sign. They are brave and intrepid, but also violent and wicked, particularly in erotic things, and like warriors in general have an unfortunate end." Seler, Collected Works, 1:128, based on Diego Durán, The History of the Indies of New Spain (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1994) 402.
⁴ Burr Cartwright Brundage, The Fifth Sun: Aztec Gods, Aztec Worlld (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1979) 200.

⁵ Robert Small (Otoe, Wolf Clan), and Julia Small (Otoe), "6. Wąkx!istowi, the Man with the Human Head Earrings," in Alanson Skinner, "Traditions of the Iowa Indians," The Journal of American Folklore, 38, #150 (October-December, 1925): 427-506 [457].
⁶ Paul Radin, Winnebago Hero Cycles: A Study in Aboriginal Literature (Baltimore: Waverly Press, 1948) 111-112.
⁷ Paul Radin, "Dear Ankle Smelling Feet," Winnebago Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society) Notebook #20: 1-146.

Chapter 10. God of War

¹ Radin, Winnebago Hero Cycles, 118-121.
² Paul Radin, "Redhorn's Nephews," Notebooks, Freeman #3860 (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1908-1913) Winnebago IV, #7a: 1-16 [1].
³ Radin, "Redhorn's Nephews," 2.
⁴ John Rave, "A Wakjonkaga Myth," in Paul Radin, Winnebago Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society) Notebook #37: 1-70.
^4.1 Paul Radin, "Intcohorúcika," Winnebago Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society) Notebook #14: 1-67 [53-56] (q.v.). Cf. Rave, "A Wakjonkaga Myth," q.v.
^4.2 Sam Blowsnake, Waretcáwera, in Paul Radin, Winnebago Notebooks, Freeman #3897 (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, ca. 1912) Winnebago V, #11: 223-251. An English translation is found in "The Twins," in Paul Radin, The Evolution of an American Indian Prose Epic. A Study in Comparative Literature, Part I (Basil: Ethnographical Museum, Basil Switzerland, 1954) 95-97. Informant: Sam Blowsnake of the Thunderbird Clan, ca. 1912.
⁵ Eloise Quiñones Keber, Codex Telleriano-Remensis: Ritual, Divination, and History in a Pictorial Aztec Manuscript (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1995) 147a.
⁶ Seler, Collected Works, 6:2; Krickeberg, Las culturas antiguas mexicanas, 140.

Chapter 11. The Arrow God

¹ Paul Radin, Winnebago Hero Cycles, 116.
^1.1 John Rave, "A Wakjonkaga Myth," in Paul Radin, Winnebago Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society) Notebook #37: 1-70.
² McCleary The Stars We Know, 70. "Corn-silk and the Seven Stars," in Edward S. Curtis, The North American Indian, being a Series of Volumes Picturing and Describing the Indians of the United States and Alaska. Ed. Frederick Webb Hodge. 20 vols. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1907-1930) 4:117-126 [123-124].
³ Guilhem Olivier, "Mixcoatl,'Serpent de Nuage', étude d'une divinité de l'ancien Mexique (suite et fin)," Conférence de M. Guilhem Olivier. In École pratique des hautes études, Section des sciences religieuses. Annuaire. Tome 110 (2001-2002) 2001: 79-82 [79]; Guilhem Olivier, "Sacred Bundles, Arrows, and New Fire. Foundation and Power in Mapa de Cuauhtinchan No. 2," in Cave, City, and Eagle's Nest: An Interpretive Journey Through the Mapa de Cuauhtinchan No. 2, edd. David Carrasco and Scott Sessions (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico, 2007) 281-313 [291a].
⁴ Burr Cartwright Brundage, The Fifth Sun: Aztec Gods, Aztec World (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1983) 142.

Chapter 12. The Dying God: The Death, Removal, and Resurrection of the God of the Hunt

⁰ Robert Small (Otoe, Wolf Clan), and Julia Small (Otoe), "6. Wąkx!istowi, the Man with the Human Head Earrings," in Alanson Skinner, "Traditions of the Iowa Indians," The Journal of American Folklore, 38, #150 (October-December, 1925): 427-506 [457].
¹ Alfonso Caso, "Nombres calendáricos de los dioses," El México antiguo, 9 (1959): 77-100 [94, s. v. 4. Tecpatl] = Alfonso Caso, "Nombres calendáricos de los dioses," in Los calendarios prehispánicos (Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas, 1967) Ch. 5, 189-199 [s. v. 4. Tecpatl]. Historia de los Mexicanos por sus pinturas, 617, in History of the Mexicans as Told by Their Paintings, translated and edited by Henry Phillips Jr. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 21 (1883): 616-651 [623]. However, although Camaxtli is 4-Flint, it is not clear that the day sign is Flint at all. Seler sees it as 4-Flower, which he identifies as a sign of Itzpapalotol. Seler, Collected Works, 6:1-3 and Fig. 8. The face lines and body form are definitely those of the Obsidian Butterfly. See Bodo Spranz, Los Dioses en los Códices Mexicanos del Grupo Borgia: una Investigación Iconográfica, trs. Marìa Martínez Peñaloza (Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1973) 87. Olivier refers to it an an "image of Itzpapalotol" that is being used instead of the bundle that contained the white arrowhead remains of the burned goddess. Guilhem Olivier, "Sacred Bundles, Arrows, and New Fire. Foundation and Power in Mapa de Cuauhtinchan No. 2," in Cave, City, and Eagle's Nest: An Interpretive Journey Through the Mapa de Cuauhtinchan No. 2, edd. David Carrasco and Scott Sessions (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico, 2007) 281-313 [288 and Fig. 10.7a].
² Durán, Book of the Gods and Rites and The Ancient Calendar, 147-148.
³ This is modeled after Bruce Lincoln's "Cattle Cycle." Bruce Lincoln, Priests, Warriors, and Cattle: A Study in the Ecology of Religions (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981) 33-39, 159-162, 173-175.
¹ The Chronicles of Michoacán, trs., edd. Eugene R. Crane and Reginald C. Reindorp (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1970) 63-64. John M. Ingham, "Human Sacrifice at Tenochtitlan," Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol. 26, No. 3. (Jul., 1984): 379-400 [390].
² The affinity of the second story to that of the Chronicles was first noted by Walter Lehmann. See Die Geschichte der Königreiche von Colhuacan und Mexico (Codex Chimalpopoca), ed., trs. with commentary by Walter Lehmann, Quellenwerke zur Alten Geschichte Amerikas, 1 (Stuttgart-Berlin: W. Kohlhammer, 1938) 333 nt 1. Graulich, Mythes et rituels du Mexique ancien préhispanique, 184.
³ The Chronicles of Michoacán, 22.
¹⁰ Robert L. Hall, "The Cultural Background of Mississippian Symbolism," in The Southeastern Ceremonial Complex: Artifacts and Analysis. The Cottonlandia Conference. Ed. Patricia Galloway (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989) 239-278 [247]. Here is Hall's original summation of his comparisons:

    1. A hero believed to have been associated with the morning star engages in contests with an unusual enemy (giants, or giants and bears, or lords of the Underworld); he is defeated and beheaded, and his head is hung up.
    2. The hero has a son or twin sons by each of two wives, one of whom was a woman with red hair or a woman associated with blood who belonged to the village of the extraordinary enemy.
    3. Twin sons of the hero or a son of the hero and a companion grow up, discover the heads or bones of the father or fathers in the village of their killers, recover them, and quicken (or reassemble) them after destroying the enemy.
    4. The ball games conclude with the killing or sacrifice of the members of the losing side.
    5. There is an episode when the head of the decapitated hero (or his rescuing son) spits at someone with a blood-associated name (or spits blood) after the death of the hero.
    6. The episode of the recovery of the remains of the father(s) by the son(s) is followed by a statement relating to the immorality of the soul (or of the name of the deceased).

¹¹ Seler, Collected Works, 3:132; Walter Krickeberg, Mitos y leyendas de los aztecas, incas, mayas y muiscas (Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1971) 135; Graulich, Mythes et rituels du Mexique ancien préhispanique, 183-184.
^12.1 McCleary, The Stars We Know, 61-62.
^12.2 Small and Small, "6. Wąkx!istowi, the Man with the Human Head Earrings," 456-458.
^12.3 Radin, Winnebago Hero Cycles, 123-132.
^12.4 Paul Radin, "Redhorn's Nephews," Notebooks, Freeman #3860 (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1908-1913) Winnebago IV, #7a: 1-16 [7-13].
^12.5 The Chronicles of Michoacán, 390.
^12.6 Popol Vuh ...
¹⁵ Graulich, Mythes et rituels du Mexique ancien préhispanique, 184.
²⁰ Munro S. Edmonson, Quiché-English Dictionary. Middle American Research Institute, Tulane University, Publication 30 (New Orleans: Tulane University Press, 1965) 71, s.v. mazat.
²¹ Hall, "The Cultural Background of Mississippian Symbolism," 245.
²² Milan Kovác, "The Maya Myth about Two Suns," Axis Mundi 9, #1 (2014): 13-21 [16].
²³ Kovác, "The Maya Myth about Two Suns," 16b.
²⁴ "... there is one more analogy worth noticing. In Central Mexico, Quetzalcóatl was the god who took the bones from the underworld. He also stole them from the ruler of death. After bringing the bones up to the earth, the bones got damaged by falling and spilling, which seemingly resulted in the mortality of humans." Kovác, "The Maya Myth about Two Suns," 16b.

Chapter 13. Human or Divine?

¹ Small and Small, "Wąkx!istowi, the Man with the Human Head Earrings," 457.
² John M. D. Pohl, "Themes of Drunkenness, Violence, and Factionalism in Tlaxcalan Altar Paintings," RES: Anthropology and Aesthetics, #33, Pre-Columbian States of Being (Spring, 1998): 184-207 [185a, 186 fig 1].
³ Pohl, "Themes of Drunkenness, Violence, and Factionalism in Tlaxcalan Altar Paintings," 196-197.

Chapter 14. The Red Man

¹ Timothy P. McCleary, The Stars We Know: Crow Indian Astronomy and Lifeways (Prospect Hills, Illinois: Waveland Press, 1997) 51-57.
⁸ Historia de los Mexicanos por sus pinturas, 617.
⁹ It is said that Tezcatlipoca transformed himself into Camaxtli in Historia de los Mexicanos por sus pinturas, 621. We may deduce that Camaxtli is derived from the Red Tezcatlipoca. See Mary Miller and Karl Taube, An Illustrated Dictionary of the Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya (London: Thames & Hudson, 1993) 116a, s.v. "Mixcoatl."

Chapter 15. The Pinstriped God

¹ Miller and Taube, An Illustrated Dictionary of the Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya, 116a, s.v. "Mixcoatl."
² Seler, Collected Works, 5:41b.
³ Miller and Taube, An Illustrated Dictionary of the Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya, 166a, s.v. "Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli."
⁴ Those who were sacrificed were known as the uauantli, "the striped ones." The same body paint design appears on representations of the war dead. Seler, Collected Works, 6:38a.
⁵ Seler, Collected Works, 5:41a.
^5.0 "His [Camaxtli's] entire body was striped from top to bottom with white stripes." Durán, Book of the Gods and Rites and The Ancient Calendar, 143; an old priest "was painted from head to foot with the same white stripes which adorned the idol," Durán, 145; the hunters during Quecholli "smeared their bodies with stripes of white paint," Durán, 146; at Quecholli, the hunters' "legs were smeared with white chalk," Durán, 456.
^5.1 Annals of Cuauhtitlan, 1:13.
⁶ Åke Hultkrantz, The Religions of the American Indians, trs. Monica Setterwall (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979 [1967]) 270-271; Arild Hvidtfeldt, Teotl and *Ixiptlatli: Some Central Conceptions in Ancient Mexican Religion (Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1958) 119-120.
⁷ Seler, Collected Works, 5:41a-b.
⁸ Seler, Collected Works, 5:41b.
⁹ Diaz-Granados and Duncan, "Reflections of Power, Wealth, and Sex in Missouri Rock-Art Motifs," in The Rock-Art of Eastern North America, 149.

Chapter 16. Masks of Life and Death

¹ Annals of Cuauhtitlan, 1:17-18.
² mixcitlathuiticac moteneua tlayoualli. Eduard Seler, Collected Works in Mesoamerican Linguistics and Archaeology (English Translations of German Papers from Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur Amerikanischen Sprach- und Alterthumskunde), translated by Charles P. Bowditch & Frank E. Comparato; J. Eric S. Thompson and Francis B. Richardson, edd., 2d ed. (Lancaster, California: Labyrinthos, 1996) 5:44b-45a, 5:97a.
³ Robert L. Hall, An Archaeology of the Soul: North American Indian Belief and Ritual (Urbana & Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1997) 147-153.
⁴ Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations: The German Text, with a Revised English Translation, ed. & trs. Gertrude Elizabeth Margaret Anscombe. 3d edition (Malden, Mass.: Wiley-Blackwell, 2001 [1953]) §67, pp. 26-28.
⁵ Stephen Williams and John M. Goggin, "The Long Nosed God Mask in Eastern United States," The Missouri Archaeologist, 18, #3 (1956): 4-72. See also Timothy R. Pauketat, Cahokia: Ancient America's Great City on the Mississippi (New York: Viking, 2009) 143-147.
⁶ Mound 3, Yokem Mound Group; Pike County, Illinois. Whelk shell, +1200-1400. National Museum of the American Indian, 24/3506.
⁷ Duane C. Anderson, "A Long-Nosed God Mask from Northwest Iowa," American Antiquity, 40, #3 (July, 1975): 326-329 [327].
⁸ Anderson, "A Long-Nosed God Mask from Northwest Iowa," 328. The profile shown was engraved on the inside of the shell, and the complementary profile was engraved in the corresponding spot on the outside of the shell.
⁹ This is the short-nosed variety of prosopic maskette as seen on the ears of the pipe sculpture known as "Big Boy" (q.v.). James A. Brown, The Spiro Ceremonial Center: the Archaeology of Arkansas Valley Caddoan Culture in Eastern Oklahoma, 2 vols. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, #29 (Ann Arbor : Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, 1996) 523b.
¹⁰ Carol Diaz-Granados, "Marking Stone, Land, Body, and Spirit," in Hero, Hawk, and Open Hand: American Indian Art of the Ancient Midwest and South (New Haven: Yale University Press and The Art Institute of Chicago, 2004) 148, fig. 20.
¹¹ An engraving from Spiro.
^11.1 William H. Holmes, Art in Shell of the Ancient Americans. Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Issue 2 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1883) 179-305 [297, plate 70].
¹² Hall, An Archaeology of the Soul, 149-150.
¹³ Radin, Winnebago Hero Cycles, 115-118.
¹⁴ Jimm G. Good Tracks, Ioway-Otoe-Missouria Dictionary, 99b, s.v. Waⁿkístowi.
¹⁵ John Harrison, "The Giant or The Morning Star," translated by Oliver LaMere, in Paul Radin, Winnebago Notebooks, Freeman #3892 (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society) Winnebago III, #11a, Story 8: 92–117 [112-114].
¹⁶ Carol Diaz-Granados, "Marking Stone, Land, Body, and Spirit," in Hero, Hawk, and Open Hand: American Indian Art of the Ancient Midwest and South (New Haven: Yale University Press and The Art Institute of Chicago, 2004) 148 fig. 20.
¹⁷ A. A. MacDonell, Vedic Mythology (Delhi: Motilal Barnassidas: 1974 [1898]) 30.
¹⁸ Ṛg Veda 10.16.3; cp. 90.3, 158.3, 4.
¹⁹ Atharva Veda 5.24.9.
²⁰ Atharva Veda 13.1.45.
²¹ Ṛg Veda 7.35.8; 10.37.1.
²² Ṛg Veda 1.502.
²³ Ṛg Veda 4.13.3. Spáś means, "one who looks or beholds, a watcher, spy, messenger (esp. applied to the messengers of Varuṇa) ... [Cf. Lat. spex in auspex; Gk. σκώψ]." Sir Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1990 [1899]) 1268b, s.v. स्पश् — 2. Spáś.
²⁴ Ṛg Veda 1.50.7; 6.51.2; 7.60.2; 7.61.1; 7.63.4.
²⁵ Sir Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1990 [1899]) 256a-b, s. v. कणॅ kárṇa. The birth of Karṇa is related in Mahābhārata 1.67 (Ganguli translation, p. 144-145).
²⁶ Scully, "Some Central Mississippi Valley Projectile Point Types," 14-15; Lynne G. Goldstein and Sannie K. Osborn, A Guide to Common Prehistoric Projectile Points in Wisconsin (Milwaukee: Milwaukee Public Museum, 1988) 58-59; William Jack Hranicky, Lithic Technology in the Middle Potomac River Valley of Maryland and Virginia (New York: Taylor & Francis, 2002) 232-235.
²⁷ Melvin L. Fowler and Robert L. Hall, "Archaeological Phases at Cahokia," in "Perspectives in Cahokia Archaeology," Urbana: Illinois Archaeological Survey, Bulletin 10 (1975): 1-14 [3]. Robert L. Hall, "Chronology and Phases at Cahokia," in "Perspectives in Cahokia Archaeology," Urbana: Illinois Archaeological Survey, Bulletin 10 (1975): 15-31. Hranicky, Lithic Technology in the Middle Potomac River Valley of Maryland and Virginia, 233. Michael John O'Brien, W. Raymond Wood, The Prehistory of Missouri (University of Missouri Press, 1998) 236.
²⁸ Hranicky, Lithic Technology in the Middle Potomac River Valley of Maryland and Virginia, 233.
²⁹ Lithics-Net > Madison. Goldstein and Osborn, A Guide to Common Prehistoric Projectile Points in Wisconsin, 60-61.
³⁰ William Jack Hranicky, Lithic Technology in the Middle Potomac River Valley of Maryland and Virginia, 173; William Jack Hranicky, Prehistoric Projectile Points Found Along the Atlantic Coastal Plain (Boca Raton, FL: Universal-Publishers, 2003) 117. First identified as a type by Edward G. Scully, "Some Central Mississippi Valley Projectile Point Types," Mimeographed paper, Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan (1951). Noel D. Justice, Stone Age Spear and Arrow Points of the Midcontinental and Eastern United States: A Modern Survey and Reference (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995) 124-127.
³¹ "The AMS dates for three pictograph panels at Picture Cave were published in "American Antiquity" (2000 or 2001) and the weighted average of the dates given as A.D. 1025. The older panel that you are working with differs stylistically from the dated pictographs and is probably late 9th or early 10th century at the latest!" James R. Duncan, personal communication, July 14, 2010. Carol Diaz-Granados, Marvin W. Rowe, Marian Hyman, James R. Duncan, John R. Southon, "AMS Radiocarbon Dates for Charcoal from Three Missouri Pictographs and Their Associated Iconography," American Antiquity, 66, #3 (July, 2001): 481-492.
^31.1 "Reason for Milky Way," in Paul Radin, Winnebago Notebooks, Freeman #3862 (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society) Winnebago I, #3: 105, 107b. From Dorcas S. Miller, Stars of the First People (Boulder: Pruitt, 1977), we have the following tribes that designate Polaris as the "Star that Does Not Move" —

^31.2 Paul Radin, "The Dipper," Notebooks, Freeman #3850, 3896, & #3897 (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society) Notebooks #49-50: 1-267 (Hocąk syllabary with an English interlinear translation) 91-92.
³² 2 Ursæ Minoris = SAO 181 = HD 5848 = HIP 5372. When the constellation boundaries were redefined, this star ended up in the constellation Cepheus. Other stars less bright have names, but this one, oddly enough, does not.
³³ The name Yildun comes from the Turkish Yilduz, "Star."
³⁴ Susan Milbrath, Star Gods of the Maya: Astronomy in Art, Folklore, and Calendars (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1999) 251-253. Among the Siouan Mandans, the principal soul is thought to travel through the sky as a shooting star. Alfred W. Bowers, Mandan Social and Ceremonial Organization (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2004 [1950]) 97. The Pleiades star cluster is said in Peru to be the eyes of Viracacha, the god of thunder and creation. Anthony Aveni, Stairways to the Stars: Skywatching in Three Great Ancient Cultures (New York: J. Wiley, 1997) 153. For the "star eyes" of the Aztecs, see Eduard Seler, Collected Works in Mesoamerican Linguistics and Archaeology (English Translations of German Papers from Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur Amerikanischen Sprach- und Alterthumskunde), translated by Charles P. Bowditch & Frank E. Comparato; J. Eric S. Thompson and Francis B. Richardson, edd., 2d ed. (Lancaster, California: Labyrinthos, 1996) 2:186a-b, 2:188b, 2:217b, 2:225b, 3:108a, 3:112b, 3:136b-3:137a, 3:217b, 4:111a, 4:133b, 4:226a, 5:5b, 5:45a, 5: 319a-b. The star-denoting eyes were also called "night eyes" by the Aztecs — see Keber, Codex Telleriano-Remensis, 182a. Among the Mixtec, stars (tinoo dzinin) are eyes (tenuu). Jill Leslie Furst, Codex Vindobonensis Mexicanus I: A Commentary. Institute for Mesoamerican Studies, State University of New York at Albany, Publication #4 (Albany: the Author, 1978) 13-14. This symbolism is widely distributed over Mesoamerica. Herbert H. Spinden, "A Study of Maya Art: Its Subject Matter and Historical Development," Memoirs of the Pebody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, 6 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1913) 209, Fig. 239; 214. Hermann Beyer, "Symbolic Ciphers in the Eyes of Maya Deities," Anthropos 23 (1928): 32-37; "El ojo en la simbología del México antiguo," El México Antiguo (Mexico City) 10 (1965): 488-493. Franz Termer, "Observaciones etnológicas acerca de los ojos entre los antiguos Mexicanos y los Mayos," El México Antiguo 9 (1961): 245-273 [250]. Jean-Jacques Rivard, "Cascabeles y ojos del dios Maya Ah Puch," Estudios de Cultura Maya (Mexico City), 5 (1965): 75-91. Horst Hartung, "Astronomical Signs in the Codices Bodley and Selden," in Native American Astronomy, ed. Anthony F. Aveni (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1977) 37-41 [38]. Pettazzoni records the following:

As for the stars as eyes of the sky itself, this is a quite wide-spread notion. Among the ancient Mexicans it even found expression in art, in the so-called Codices of their picture-writing, which include some representations of the heavens as dotted with eyes. It still survives among the present-day inhabitants of Mexico, as the Cora and Huichol. Among the Wiyot or Wishosk of central California the stars are called "eyes of the sky." Among the Alacaluf of Tierra del Fuego they are the eyes of Xolas, their Supreme Being. Likewise among the Cashinawa (Western Amazon basin), the stars are the eyes of the sky-Being. Sometimes it is certain particular stars which are his eyes. Thus, among the eastern Pomo in California the stars in general are supposed to be eyes, but the polestar is the eye of Marumda, the Supreme Being. In ancient Peru the seven Pleiades were the eyes of Viracocha. In the central district of the island of Flores the stars are the eyes of Dua Nggae the Supreme Being, who is thought of as being the pair Heaven and Earth. Among the Masai, who are Nilotic Hamites, the stars are the eyes of Ngai, the chief sky-god, and a falling star is one of his eyes which is coming nearer the earth in order to see better.

Raffaele Pettazzoni, "On the Attributes of God," Numen, 2, ##1-2 (Jan.-May, 1950): 1-27 [8]. "Among the Cora of ... Mexico, Tetewan, goddess of he night sky and the lower world, has many "sights," presumably eyes, looking every way, and the same is said of Hatsikan, the Morning Star." Pettazzoni, "On the Attributes of God," 19. A raconteur of a Shoshone story says that after the Cottontail brothers made the Moon out of the Sun's gall bladder, "They made stars out of some other part of the body — maybe the eyes." Annie Bealer, "Cottontail Shoots the Sun," in Anne M. Smith, Shoshone Tales (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1993 [1939]) 100. The Greek Άργός Πἄνόπτης | Argós Panóptēs, "Bright All-Eyes," seems to have represented the night sky, with his hundred eyes being the stars, as when Ovid describes him as stellatus ... Argus, "starry Argos" (Metamorphoses 1.644).

Argos Panoptes had "many" or "a hundred" or "ten thousand" eyes, or, according to the Aigimios, four, presumably distributed between two faces, for we actually find him two-faced on some vases. In one he has in addition eyes all over his body, and that was how Kratinos conceived of his panoptai, that is the followers of a philosophic school of which he was making fun in the comedy with that title.

Pettazzoni, "On the Attributes of God," 18-19.
³⁵ "6. Wąkx!istowi, the Man with the Human Head Earrings," in Alanson Skinner, "Traditions of the Iowa Indians," The Journal of American Folklore, 38, #150 (October-December, 1925): 427-506 [457-458].
^35.1 "Blue Horn's Nephews" (q.v.), pp. 57-60, in Paul Radin, Winnebago Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, ca. 1912) Notebook 58: 1-104 (missing its ending). The lost ending of this story (pp. 104-107) was found inserted between pp. 107 and 108 of "Coonskin Coat," in Paul Radin, Winnebago Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, n.d.) Notebook 59.
³⁶ Bear's Arm, "3. The Sacred Arrow," in Martha Warren Beckwith, Myths and Hunting Stories of the Mandan and Hidatsa Sioux, Publications of the Folk-Lore Foundation (Poughkeepsie: Vassar College) #10 (1930): 22-52 [42].
³⁷ Ronald Goodman, Lakota Star Knowledge: Studies in Lakota Stellar Theology (Rosebud Sioux Reservation: Siñte Gleska University, 1992) 39. He continues —

The tioṡṗaye would seek ways, perhaps through a ceremony, to interpret these marks. Among the Laǩoṫa, twins are recongized as special. Some of them are born with marks indicating a previous life. Also some children at age 2, 3 and 4 recollect and speak of aspects of their past lives which are verifiable, such as old camp sites. Sometimes they use words long out of common usage. It is recognized that some twins come back to restore knowledge which would otherwise remain lost to the Laǩoṫa people.

³⁸ Louis F. Burns, Osage Indian Customs and Myths (Tuscaloosa, Alabama: University of Alabama Press, 2005 [1984]) 86; Alice C. Fletcher and Francis La Flesche, The Omaha Tribe (Lincoln: The University of Nebraska Press, 1992 [1904-1905]) 61-62.
³⁹ James R. Duncan and Carol Diaz-Granados, "Of Masks and Myths," Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology, 25, #1 (Spring, 2000): 1-23 [6].
⁴⁰ Francis La Flesche, A Dictionary of the Osage Language, Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 109 (Washington, D. C.: United States Printing Office, 1932) 230 s.v. "alive," and 290 s.v. "to live."
⁴¹ La Flesche, A Dictionary of the Osage Language, 109 s.v. ni-óⁿ, 237, s.v. "breath (the)."
⁴² Stephen R. Riggs, A Dakota-English Dictionary (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1992 [1890]) 342a, s.v. ni-yá.
⁴³ Riggs, A Dakota-English Dictionary, 340b, s.v. ni.
⁴⁴ La Flesche, A Dictionary of the Osage Language, 124a, s.v. pa.
⁴⁵ Riggs, A Dakota-English Dictionary, 402a, s.v. pa.
⁴⁶ W. C. McKern, "A Winnebago Myth," Yearbook, Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee, 9 (1929): 215-230.
^46.1 Pauketat, Cahokia, 147.
^46.2 Burr Cartwright Brundage, The Jade Steps: A Ritual Life of the Aztecs (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1985) 59. See Sahagún, Florentine Codex, 2:23 (chapter 13).
^46.2.0 Codex Ixtlilxochitl, 110v.
^46.2.1 William G. Fecht, "Long-Nose Mask Ear Ornaments," Prehistoric Artifacts of North America, 20, #4 (1968): 7-9. Duncan and Diaz-Granados, "Of Masks and Myths," 4.
^46.3 Jimm Goodtracks, Báxoje-Jiwére-Ñú’achi Ich’e Wawagaxe — Ioway-Oto-Missouria Dictionary (2010) 1 s.v. =kan.
^46.4 Riggs, A Dakota-English Dictionary, 507, s.v. wa-káŋ.
^46.5 Riggs, A Dakota-English Dictionary, 508, s.v. wa-káŋ-da.
^46.6 Goodtracks, Báxoje-Jiwére-Ñú’achi Ich’e Wawagaxe — Ioway-Oto-Missouria Dictionary, 87, s.v. Wakáⁿda.
^46.7 La Flesche, A Dictionary of the Osage Language, 193a-194b, s.v. Wa-ḳóⁿ-da.
^46.8 La Flesche, A Dictionary of the Osage Language, 194b, s.v. Wa-ḳóⁿ-da-gi.
^46.9 Goodtracks, Báxoje-Jiwére-Ñú’achi Ich’e Wawagaxe — Ioway-Oto-Missouria Dictionary, 86b, s.v. wakáⁿ.
^46.10 The expression used is hik'ik'awaxâro (hikika-waxoro), which is translated as "to shed skin." Hikika is akin to hikikax, "to be dressed in a color" (Miner), "to wear, be adorned with" (Marino-Radin); and hikikaž, "to be dressed in" (Marino-Radin). The word waxoró means, "to peel something; to use a drawknife on" (Miner). For the phrase hik'ik'awaxâro, see Paul Radin, Winnebago Notebooks, Freeman # (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society) Winnebago II, #5: 171 (= Winnebago II, #1: 157, s. 49); Paul Radin, The Road of Life and Death: A Ritual Drama of the American Indians. Bollingen Series V (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1973 [1945]) 112, 151, 337 nt. 31 ("The ritualistic term for reincarnation is 'skin-shedding'."). At Winnebago II, #6: 22 (= Radin, The Road of Life and Death, 94 ¶ 2, cp. 337 nt. 31), the interlinear text has the word hōiⁿkī́kāwāẋâră, which is translated as "it peels[,] peeling (like snakes)." Radin has an interesting comment on the opposite page:

x hōikī́kawaẋâra = [Wacdjiⁿgéga had acomplish made a certain life for the Indians, which they were to follow. If they followed it they when they died they went to a place called wanoẋitcinak ghost village, from whence they were called by Maⁿuna's servant to him. There they were given the choice of living over again in any form of animal life they wished. It is re[incarnation] this living again that is referred to in —(skin sheding.) Winnebago II, #6: 21 verso

For the Ioway, see Goodtracks, Báxoje-Jiwére-Ñú’achi Ich’e Wawagaxe — Ioway-Oto-Missouria Dictionary, 87a, s.v. wakáⁿ.
^46.11 A figure from Tongres in Belgium has a phallus mounted on its head, and another in place of its nose. Weston La Barre, Muelos: A Stone Age Superstition about Sexuality (New York: Columbia University Press, 1984) 20.
^46.12 Richard Broxton Onians, The Origins of European Thought about the Body, the Mind, the Soul, the World, Time, and Fate (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1951) 236-246.
^14.13 Onians, The Origins of European Thought, 239-240.
^14.14 Ovid, Metamorphoses 3.594; Statius, Thebaid 6.423.
^14.15
47 Mary Carolyn Marino, A Dictionary of Winnebago: An Analysis and Reference Grammar of the Radin Lexical File (Ph.D. Thesis, University of California, Berkeley, December 14, 1968 [69-14,947]) ss.vv. ni, nį.
⁴⁸ La Flesche, A Dictionary of the Osage Language, 354a, s.v. "water."
⁴⁹ Radin, Winnebago Hero Cycles, 122-123.
⁵⁰ Mark 7:31-35, 8:22-25.
⁵¹ Albert Samuel Gatschet, "Hocank hit’e," in Linguistic and Ethnological Material on the Winnebago, Manuscript 1989-a (Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution National Anthropological Archives, 1889, 1890-1891) s.v. nąǧidak — "1. dead man’s spirit, 2. soul, 3. shadow, 4. man’s reflection in the water" (q.v.); Marino, s.v. nąǧi ("soul, ghost, spirit"); nąǧirak ("soul, vital principle, the spirit"); Kenneth L. Miner, Winnebago Field Lexicon (Kansas City: University of Kansas, June 1984) s.v. nąǧírak ("ghost, shadow"); Hocąk Teaching Materials, edd. Johannes Helmbrecht and Christian Lehmann, 2 vols. (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2010) 1:151, s.v. nąąǧírak. This is an old Siouan word: cf. Ioway, náxire, naxíre, "soul, spirit"; wanáxi, wanáxe, wanáxire, wanáxira, "ghost, spirit, soul"; Jimm Goodtracks, Báxoje-Jiwére-Ñú’achi Ich’e Wawagaxe — Ioway-Oto-Missouria Dictionary, 10b, s.v. naxi, náxire; 89a, s.v. wanáxi. Osage, wanóⁿxe, "soul"; nóⁿxe, "spirit, sanity"; La Flesche, A Dictionary of the Osage Language, 332, s.v. "soul"; 117, s.v. nóⁿxe; 197, s.v. wanóⁿxe. Dakota, naġí, "soul, spirit of a person, manes, shades, ghosts, the shadow"; wanáġi, "the soul when separated from the body, a ghost, the manes, a shadow"; Riggs, A Dakota-English Dictionary, 519b, s.v. wanáġi; 320b, s.v. naġí; John P. Williamson, An English-Dakota Dictionary (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society, 1992 [1902]) 216b, s.v. "soul"; 200a, s.v. "shadow." Hidatsa, nokidáḣi, "a human shade, a ghost"; dáḣi, "a dim shadow or shade." Washington Matthews, Ethnography and Philology of the Hidatsa Indians. Department of the Interior, United States Geological and Geographical Survey, Miscellaneous Publications, #7 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1877) 143, s.v. dokidáḣi; 225, s.v. "Ghost"; 143, ss.vv. dok, doḣ; 138, s.v. dáḣi; 158, s.v. idáḣi; 234, s.v. "Shade."
⁵² Onians.
⁵³ Åke Hultkrantz, The Religions of the American Indians, trs. Monica Setterwall (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979 [1967]) 133; Åke Hultkrantz, The North American Indian Orpheus Tradition, in Statens Etnografiska Museum, Monograph Series 2 (Stockholm, the Museum, 1957): 69ff. Similar ideas are entertained by people on the other side of the world. "The belief is that between the Laughlan Islands and the island of Vatum in the Trobriand group, to which their souls should go, there is a great snake over which they must pass. The snake asks each soul for her tattooing. The soul takes off her tattooing and gives it to the snake, who covers itself with it. The snake then becomes broad and flat and the soul passes over, as on a bridge. If the soul is not tattooed the snake shrinks, becomes very narrow, and the soul falls into the sea and cannot reach Vatum. These wretched souls become fish." "Notes," Nature, 65, #1689 (March 13, 1902): 445b.
⁵⁴ Carol Diaz-Granados, "Early Manifestations of Mississippian Iconography in Middle Mississippi Valley Rock-Art," Visualizing the Sacred: Cosmic Visions, Regionalism, and the Art of the Mississippian World, edd. George E. Lankford, F. Kent Reilly III, and James F. Garber. The Linda Schele Series in Maya and Pre-Columbian Studies (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2011) 76.
⁵⁵ William Tomkins, Universal Indian Sign Language of the Plains Indians of North America, 5th ed. (San Diego, published by the author, ca. 1931) s.v. "Spirit."
⁵⁶ Weston La Barre, Muelos: A Stone Age Superstition about Sexuality (New York: Columbia University Press, 1984).
⁵⁷ Alice S. Straus, "Northern Cheyenne Ethnopsychology," Ethos, 5 (1977): 325-357 [327].
⁵⁸ La Barre, Muelos, 49. For the soul as a resident in the marrow of the bones, see Hall, An Archaeology of the Soul, 30-31.
⁵⁹ Father Paul Le Jeune, Jesuit Relations, 1636. Quoted in Hall, An Archaeology of the Soul, 30.
⁶⁰ John Napoleon Brinton Hewitt, "The Iroquoian Concept of the Soul," Journal of American Folk-Lore, 8, #29 (1894): 107-116. Hall, An Archaeology of the Soul, 30.
⁶¹ Paul Radin, The Winnebago Tribe (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990 [1923]) 96.
⁶² Paul Radin, "The Two Friends Who Became Reincarnated: The Origin of the Four Nights Wake," The Culture of the Winnebago as Described by Themselves (Baltimore: Special Publications of the Bollingen Foundation, #1, 1949) 12-46. Informant: John Rave (Bear Clan). The original text is in Paul Radin, Winnebago Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, n.d.) Notebook 43, 1-62. This story is discussed in Claude Lévi-Strauss, "Four Winnebago Myths," Structural Anthropology, vol. 2, trs. Monique Layton (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976) 198-210.
⁶³ Richard Broxton Onians, The Origins of European Thought about the Body, the Mind, the Soul, the World, Time, and Fate (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1951) 96-97.
⁶⁴ Paul Radin, Winnebago Hero Cycles: A Study in Aboriginal Literature (Baltimore: Waverly Press, 1948) 100-102. Paul Radin, The Trickster: A Study in American Indian Mythology (New York: Schocken Books, 1956) §§10-11, pp. 72-74. The original Hocąk text is missing, but the English translation of Oliver LaMère is preserved in Paul Radin, "The Hare Cycle," Winnebago Notebooks, Freeman #3851 (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, n.d.) Winnebago IV, #1: 48-59.
⁶⁵ George Lankford, The "Path of Souls": Some Death Imagery in the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex," in Ancient Objects and Sacred Realms: Interpretations of Mississippian Iconography, edd. F. Kent Reilly III and James F. Garber (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2007) 174-212 [191-192].
⁶⁶ Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, Information Respecting the History, Condition and Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the United States, 4 vols. (Philadelphia: Lippincott, Grambo & Company, 1856) 4:240. For the Ioway it is Wanáxi Chína Náwun, “Spirit Village Road”. Goodtracks, Báxoje-Jiwére-Ñú’achi Ich’e Wawagaxe — Ioway-Oto-Missouria Dictionary, "M" 5b, s.v. "Milky Way." Cf. the Dakota Wanáġi-taćaŋku, "the Milky Way" (literally, "Road of the Spirits"). Riggs, A Dakota-English Dictionary, 519b, s.v. Wanáġi-taćaŋku; 90a, s.v. ćaŋkú; Williamson, An English-Dakota Dictionary, 108a, s.v. "milky-way"; Lakota, Wanagi Tacanku, "the Spirit Road," Eugene Buechel and Paul Manhart, Lakota Dictionary (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002) 341a, s.v. Wanagi Tacanku; Jan Ullrich, New Lakota Dictionary (Bloomington: Lakota Language Consortium, 2008) 950b, s.v. "Milky Way," 569b, s.v. wanáǧi tȟacȟáyku. Farther afield, we have Creek, poyvfekcv ennene, "the road of ghosts," Jack B. Martin and Margaret McKane Mauldin, A Dictionary of Creek/Muskogee (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2000) 80b, s.v. nene; 100b, s.v. poyvfekcv; 100b, s.v. poyvfekcv ennene; 272a, s.v. "Milky Way." Ojibwe, Tchibekana, "Road of the Dead," Frederic Baraga, A Dictionary of the Ojibway Language (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1992 [1878]) 170a, s.v. "Milky Way"; 237b, s.v. mikana; 382a, s.v. tchibekana.
^12.11 Seler, Collected Works, 5:41a.
¹³ Radin,Winnebago Hero Cycles, 115-118.
^13.1 John Harrison, The Giant or The Morning Star, translated by Oliver LaMere, in Paul Radin, Winnebago Notebooks, Freeman #3892 (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society) Winnebago III, #11a, Story 8: 112-113.
^13.2 Paul Radin, Winnebago Hero Cycles, 123-129.
¹⁴ Radin, Winnebago Hero Cycles, 123-129. Cf. W. C. McKern, "A Winnebago Myth," Yearbook, Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee, 9 (1929): 215-230.
¹⁵ Kathleen Danker and Felix White, Sr., The Hollow of Echoes (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1978) 24-25. Informant: Felix White, Sr.
¹⁶ Mary Miller and Karl Taube, An Illustrated Dictionary of the Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya (London: Thames & Hudson, 1993) 63, s.v. "clowns."
¹⁷ Philip Phillips and James A. Brown, Pre-Columbian Shell Engravings: from the Craig Mound at Spiro, Oklahoma. 2 vols. (Cambridge, Mass.: Peabody Museum Press, ca. 1975-1982) 1.20-21 (figure a).
¹⁸ Amos E. Oneroad and Alanson B. Skinner, Being Dakota: Tales and Traditions of the Sisseton and Wahpeton, ed. Laura L. Anderson (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society, 2005) 191 nt 93.

Thomas H. Lewis, "The heyoka Cult in Historical and Contemporary Oglala Sioux Society," Anthropos, 69, ##1-2 (1974): 17-32 [17].
¹⁹ James Owen Dorsey, A Study of Siouan Cults, in the Annual report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Volume 11, 1889-1890 (Washington: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1894) 361-544 [468-471].

Wallis, "Beliefs and Tales of the Canadian Dakota," 38.
²⁰ Stephen R. Riggs, A Dakota-English Dictionary (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1992 [1890]) 144b-145a, s.v. He-yó-ka.
²¹ Dorsey, A Study of Siouan Cults, 468 §217.
²² Amos E. Oneroad and Alanson B. Skinner, Being Dakota: Tales and Traditions of the Sisseton and Wahpeton, ed. Laura L. Anderson (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society, 2005) 191-192.
²³ Are the similar looking names heroka and heyoka cognate? Heroka means "without horns." If heyoka is divided as he-yoka, the meaning of he is the same as it is in Hocąk — "horn." Riggs, A Dakota-English Dictionary, 140b, s.v. he₃. There is only one word in Dakota that begins /yo/. Given the /o/ ~ /u/ in all Siouan languages, the from yuka suggests itself. This word means, "to strip off," with the meaning "stripped off horn" given to the compound. Riggs, A Dakota-English Dictionary, 628, s.v. yu-ká. This would be similar to he-roka in Hocąk, since in the myth of how they got such a name, Herokaga stripped off his only horn to use as a fire weapon. This too recalls the close association of Heyoka with the Thunderbirds.
²⁴ W. C. McKern, Winnebago Notebook (Milwaukee: Milwaukee Public Museum, 1927) 64-65.

Chapter 17. Brothers, Good and Bad

¹

Chapter 18. The God Who Fathered Himself.

¹ Historia de los Mexicanos por sus pinturas, 622.
² Historia de los Mexicanos por sus pinturas, 623.
³ «hoy sale Camaxtle como su hijo Queçalcovatl.» Bartolomé de las Casas, Apologética Historia de las Indias (Madrid : Bailly, Bailliére é hijos, 1909) Ch. 172, 1:456b. Emily Umberger, "Antiques, Revivals, and References to the Past in Aztec Art," Anthropology and Aesthetics, 13 (Spring, 1987): 62-105 [73]. This mask was a mosaic work of turquoise stone («poníanle tambien una máscara, que suele ser de piedras turquesas puestas como la obra que llaman musaico»).
^3.1 Las Casas, Apologética Historia de las Indias, 1:326-328; Henry B. Nicholson, Topiltzin Quexzalcoatl: The Once and Future Lord of the Toltecs (Boulder: The University Press of Colorado, 2001) 57.
⁴ W. C. McKern, "A Winnebago Myth," Yearbook, Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee, 9 (1929): 215-230.
⁵ Radin, Winnebago Hero Cycles, 134-136.
⁶ Plenty Hawk, "1. Lodge Boy and Thrown Away," in Lowie,"Myths and Traditions of the Crow Indians," 74-85 [85].
⁷ McCleary, The Stars We Know, vii, 31, 37-42.
⁸ Plenty Hawk, "1. Old-Woman's-Grandchild," in Lowie, "Myths and Traditions of the Crow Indians," 52-57 [57], cf. 74. Called Kā́lisbāpitua in McCleary, The Stars We Know, 37, 41.

Chapter 19. The Father of Twins

¹ x

Chapter 20. The Champion of the Ballcourt

^1
20 Karen Bassie-Sweet, Maya Sacred Geography and the Creator Deities (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2008) 219.

Chapter 21. Herons and Cranes, Warriors and Stars.

^x — Samuel D. Robbins, Jr., Wisconsin Birdlife: Population and Distribution Past and Present (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1991)
¹ Debra Herrmann, Avian Cognition: Exploring the Intelligence, Behavior, and Individuality of Birds (Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2014) 40.
² Robert Porter Allen, "A Report on the Whooping Crane's Northern Breeding Grounds," Supplement to Research Report 3 (National Audubon Society, New York, 1956). N. S. Novakowski, "Whooping Crane Population Dynamics on the Nesting Grounds, Wood Buffalo National Park, Northwest Territories, Canada. Canadian Wildlife Service, Ottawa, ON, Canada," Research Report Series 1 (1966). Kevin Timoney, Stephen C. Zoltai, and L. Gordon Goldsborough, "Boreal Diatom Ponds: A Rare Wetland Associated with Nesting Whooping Cranes," Wetlands, 17, #4 (December 1997): 539-551 [550a].
³ Bruce H. Pugesek, Michael J. Baldwin, and Thomas Stehn, "The Relationship of Blue Crab Abundance to Winter Mortality of Whooping Cranes," The Wilson Journal of Ornithology, 125, #3 (2013): 658–661.
⁴ Vladimir Dinets, "Predation on Amphibians and Reptiles by Reintroduced Whooping Cranes (Grus americana) in Louisiana," The American Midland Naturalist 175, #1 (December, 2015): 135-138.
⁵ Ernest E. Thompson, "The Birds of Manitoba," Proceedings of the United States National Museum, vol. 13 (Washington: United States National Museum, 1891) 491, citing Henry Y. Hind (1859). "As far back as 1831 wounded whooping cranes were reported as 'putting the fowler to flight, and fairly driving him off the field'." Rod Preece and Lorna Chamberlain, Animal Welfare and Human Values (Waterloo, Ontario: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 1993) 121.
⁶ Robin W. Doughty, Return of the Whooping Crane (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1989) 5.
⁷ Pennsylvania Game News. United States, Pennsylvania Game Commission (1965): 18.
⁸ Mary Miller and Karl Taube, An Illustrated Dictionary of the Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya (London: Thames & Hudson, 1993) 42, s.v. "Aztlan."
⁹ Lienzo de Tlaxcalla (Mexico: Oficina tipográfica de la Secretaría de fomento, 1892 [ca. 1550]) 22, 35, 44, 49, 73.
¹⁰ Eduard Seler, "Die Tierbilder der mexikanischen und der Maya-Handschriften," Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, 41 #6 (1909): 784-846 [844, Figure 651 = Lienzo de Tlaxcalla 22].
¹¹ Eduard Seler, J. F. Loubat, and A. H. Keane, Codex Fejérváry-Mayer: an old Mexican Picture Manuscript in the Liverpool Free Public Museums (Edinburgh: Printed by T. and A. Constable at the Edinburgh University Press, 1901) 111, 161, 175, 198.
¹² For the aztacopilli, aztapatzactli, and aztazontli, see Justyna Olko, Insignia of Rank in the Nahua World: From the Fifteenth to the Seventeenth Century (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, June 15, 2014) 406.
¹³ Olko, Insignia of Rank in the Nahua World, 406.
¹⁴ Annals of Cuauhtitlan, 3:33-36, in John Bierhorst, History and Mythology of the Aztecs: the Codex Chimalpopoca (Tucson: The University of Arizona Press, 1992) 28.
¹⁵ Annals of Cuauhtitlan, 54:28-32, Bierhorst, History and Mythology of the Aztecs, 111.
¹⁶ Seler, Loubat, and Keane, Codex Fejérváry-Mayer, 107.
¹⁷ Seler, Loubat, and Keane, Codex Fejérváry-Mayer, 161.
¹⁸ J. O. Dorsey and John R. Swanton, A Dictionary of the Biloxi and Ofo Languages, Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 47 (Washington: US Government Printing Office, 1912) s.v. 240b.
¹⁹ J. O. Dorsey and John R. Swanton, A Dictionary of the Biloxi and Ofo Languages, Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 47 (Washington: US Government Printing Offfice, 1912) s.v. 327b-328a.
²⁰ Online Nahuatl Dictionary, Stephanie Wood, editor.
²¹ Allen J. Christenson, K’iche’ - English Dictionary (famsi.org).
²² Jimm Goodtracks, Baxoje - Jiwere - Nyut’aji - Ma’unke, Iowa - Otoe - Missouria Language to English (Boulder: by the author, 1992) 55, #2944.
²³ Francis La Flesche, A Dictionary of the Osage Language, Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 109 (Washington: US Government Printing Offfice, 1932) ss. vv. 127b, 139a.
²⁴ John P. Williamson, An English-Dakota Dictionary (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society, 1992 [1902]) 83a, s.v. "heron."
²⁵ Stephen R. Riggs, A Dakota-English Dictionary (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1992 [1890]) 419a, s.v. peháŋ; Williamson, 41a, s.v. "crane."
²⁶ For purposes of further comparison, see Crow, apíte, "whooping crane"; shuáhte, "crane, stork"; and Hidatsa, abíca, "crane"; dōsha, "blue crane (heron)." Crow Language Consortium, Crow Language Online., ss. vv. MHA Language Project. Hidatsa Dictionary.
²⁷ Paul Radin, "The Crane," Winnebago Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society) #48.
²⁸ The view of Sirius as a dog is best known from the Old World, where the Greeks called Sirius the "dog of Orion." Iliad 22.29. ὅν τε κύν’ Ὠρίωνοs ἐpίκλησιν κaλέουσι, "that which they call by name 'dog of Orion'." The same in Eratosthenes, Catasterismi 33 (κύνα Ὠρίωνοs); Hyginus, Astronomica 2.35 (canem Orionis). He was also called, "Sirius Dog" (Σείριος Κὑων | Seírios Kúōn). Æscylus, Agamemnon 967, Sophocles, fr. 941. Sir George Cornewall Lewis, An Historical Survey of the Astronomy of the Ancients (London: Parker and Bourn, 1862) 61 nt 230. In other sources he is called simply "dog," An Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon, Founded upon the Seventh Edition of Liddell and Scott's Greek-English Lexicon (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975 [1889]) s.v. ΚΥ´ΩΝ, 459a. The Greeks placed him in the stars as the hunting dog of Orion. Eleanor R. Long, "How the Dog Got Its Days: A Skeptical Inquiry Into Traditonal Star and Weather Lore," Western Folklore, 43 (1984): 256-264 [257-258]. Farther afield, the Chinese call Sirius T'ien-lang, the "Celestial Jackal." Kenneth Brecher, "Sirius Enigmas," in Astronomy of the Ancients, edd. Kenneth Brecher and Michael Feirtag (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1979) 91-116 [91, 93]. In the Western Hemisphere, the Seri see Sirius as a dog that chases after the Cingulum of Orion, which is in the form of three mountain sheep. Alfred Louis Kroeber, The Seri. Southwestern Museum Papers, 6 (Los Angeles: Southwest Museum, 1931) 12. The Blackfeet refer to Sirius as "dog-face," J. L'Heureux, "Ethnological Notes on the Blackfeet Indians," Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 15 (1885): 301-305 [302]; David Vogt, "Medicine Wheel Astronomy," in Clive N. Ruggles and Nicholas J. Saunders (edd.), Astronomies and Cultures (Niwot: University of Colorado Press, 1993) 163-201 [174]. The Dog Star, Sirius, is the patron of the Cheyenne Dog Soldiers. James M. Volo, and Dorothy Denneen Volo, Family life in Native America (Santa Barbara: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007) 362. The Eskimo of the Bering Strait area in Alaska called Sirius, I?alum kimukhti, "the Moon's Dog." Edward William Nelson, The Eskimo About Bering Strait, Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 1896-1897 (Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution,1899) 449, 458; John MacDonald, The Arctic Sky: Inuit Astronomy, Star Lore, and Legend (Toronto: Royal Ontario Museum, Nanavut Research Institute, 1998) 73, 76. However, Sirius is not always identified with that kind of canine. The Inuit of the western Arctic call Sirius the "Fox Star." "In parts of the Western Arctic, the rapid, animated colour changes of Sirius earn it the name 'fox star,' Kajuqtuq Tiriganniarlu ('red fox and white fox'). It is said that the 'red fox' and the 'white fox' are fighting together, each trying to gain access to a single foxhole." MacDonald, The Arctic Sky, 75. C. L. N. Ruggles, Ancient Astronomy: an Encyclopedia of Cosmologies and Myth (Santa Barabara: ABC-CLIO, 2005) 194. However, some say that this is the Morning Star, showing some confusion between the two celestial objects. Birgitte Sonne, Agayut: Eskimo Masks from the Fifth Thule Expedition (Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 1988) 101-102; MacDonald, The Arctic Sky, 76. The Pawnee refer to Sirius as "the Wolf Star." Murie, Ceremonies of the Pawnee, 42. Among the Osage, who have a reasonably close relationship to the Hocągara, Sirius is also viewed as a dog star. They call Sirius, Shóⁿge Agak’egoⁿ, the "Dog as though Suspended in the Sky," as it says in a prayer found in Francis La Flesche, A Dictionary of the Osage Language, Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 109 (Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1932) s.v. Shóⁿ-ge a-ga-k'e-goⁿ; Louis F. Burns, Osage Indian Customs and Myths (Tuscaloosa, Alabama: University of Alabama Press, 2005 [1984]) 204. The Cherokee have two dog stars, Sirius and Antares, who guard the two entrances to the Milky Way. Stansbury Hagar, Cherokee Star-lore, in Berthold Laufer (ed.), Boas Anniversary Volume: Anthropological Papers Written in Honor of Franz Boas (New York: G. E. Stechert & Co, 1906) pp. 354-366. [354-356]. George Lankford, "The 'Path of Souls': Some Death Imagery in the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex," in Ancient Objects and Sacred Realms, 174-212 [190]. Being the guard to the entrance of the Milky Way may be an alternative explanation for why Sirius is so often identified with a dog. Lankford, "The 'Path of Souls'," 209. We find the dual guard dogs of the path of the dead in Indo-European antiquity, perhaps extending across the Mediterranean area generally. It has been argued that one dog guarded the entrance for the dead, and the other guarded the entrance for those souls coming to life, a pattern matching the role of the hole in the sky in Orion where souls go back and forth. Bruce Lincoln, “The Hellhound,” Journal of Indo-European Studies 7 (1979): 273-285 [275]. Bernfried Schlerath, "Der Hund bei den Indo-germanen," Paideuma 6 (1954): 25-40. Schlerath, "Der Hund bei den Indo-germanen," 36; see also Manfred Lurker, "Hund und Wolf in ihrer Beziehung zum Tode," Antaios 10 (1969): 199-216. With its proximity to both the Milky Way and Orion, Sirius-as-dog is a logical candidate for such an office. None of these attributes consistently apply to the erratic and devious Morning Star. And although Sirius is rather tricky in its many changes of color, there can be little doubt that White Plume, who was turned into a dog, is in fact the bright white Dog Star, Sirius.
²⁹ Walter Funmaker, personal communication, 1984.
³⁰ Kenneth L. Miner, Winnebago Field Lexicon (Kansas City: University of Kansas, June 1984) s.v.; Learner’s Dictionary, Hocąk–English/English–Hocąk, edd. Johannes Helmbrecht and Christian Lehmann. Arbeitspapiere des Seminars für Sprachwissenschaft der Universität Erfurt Seminar für Sprachwissenschaft, no. 21, 2d ed. (Erfurt: the Editors, May, 2006) s.v.
³¹ Sam Blowsnake, "Waretcáwera," in Paul Radin, Winnebago Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, ca. 1908) Winnebago V, #11: 1-54. This is, "The Birth of the Twins, Version 1," page 49.

Chapter 22. The Solar Connection

^1
20 Bassie-Sweet, Maya Sacred Geography and the Creator Deities, 219.
²¹ J. Eric S. Thompson, Maya History and Religion (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1970) 234, 237; D. Tedlock, Popol Vuh, 239-240; Milbrath, Star Gods of the Maya, 97.
²² Thompson, Maya History and Religion, 237.
²³ Thompson, Maya History and Religion, 237.

Chapter 23. God of Fire and the Silver Xonecuilli

¹ Seler, Collected Works, 4:202a.
¹⁰ Miller and Taube, Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya, 115b-116a, s.v. "Mixcoatl," following Walter Krickeberg, Las antiguas culturas mexicanas. Trs. Sita Garst and Jasmin Reuter (Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1961 [1956]) 126.
¹¹ Keber, Codex Telleriano-Remensis, 176.
¹² «... las estrellas del cielo del norte (mimixcoa) se transformaron en estrellas del cielo del sur (huitznahua).» Krickeberg, Las culturas antiguas mexicanas, 140.
¹³ Zelia Nuttall, "The Atlatl or Spear-Thrower Used by the Ancient Mexicans," Archaeological and Ethnological Papers of the Peabody Museum, 1, #1 (1888-1904): 173-207 [203 plate I, #7].
¹⁴ Based on Seler, Collected Works, 3:214 fig. 38.
¹⁵ Detail from the rendering of Mixcoatl in the Codex Telleriano-Remensis.
¹⁶ Based on Seler, Collected Works, 4:202 fig. 11b.
¹⁷ Seler, Collected Works, 4:202a.
¹⁸ Seler, Collected Works, 4:206b-207a.
¹⁹ Seler, Collected Works, 4:196.
²⁰ Bernardino de Sahagún, Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain. Book 7: The Sun, Moon, and Stars, and the Binding of the Years. Trs. Charles E. Dibble, Arthur J. O. Anderson. Archaeological Institute of America, Monograph 14, Book 1, Chapter 10.
^20.1 Seler, Collected Works, 4:162b.
²¹ Hernando Alvarado Tezozómoc, Cronica Mexicana, ed. Jose M. Vigil (Mexico City: Ireneo Paz, 1878 [1598]) 451.
²² Seler, Collected Works, 5:55a-b; 4:145.
²³ Miller and Taube, Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya, 189b, s.v. "Xiuhcoatl."
²⁴ Sahagun, Florentine Codex, Book 1, Chapter 1, quoted in Seler, Collected Works, 3:215b. War is referred to as "fire and water," the former being clear enough as a symbol of destruction, but the latter is more obscure. Water in Nahuatl is atl, the the spear thrower is the atlatl, which to the Nahuatl ear sounds like "water-water." So war, which employs the atlatl, is signified by water (atl). Cf. Seler, Collected Works, 4:131a, where the designation for war, atl-tlachinolli, is translated as "fire flood."
²⁵ Seler, Collected Works, 3:216a.
²⁶ Seler, Collected Works, 4:146a.
²⁷ Sahagún, Florentine Codex, 7:13.
²⁹ José Manuel Pedrosa, "Bocina," in Gran enciclopedia cervantina, edd. Carlos Alvar, Florencio Sevilla Arroyo (Madrid: Centro de Estudios Cervantinos, January, 2008) s.v., 1381-1383.

Miguel de Cervantes, Adventures of Don Quixote de la Mancha, Part I, Chapter XX, 199ᵇ, trs. Charles Jarvis (London: G. Routledge, 1858) 85-86. It was also given this name in Italian as early as 1310 in Dante's Inferno, Paradiso, Canto XIII, where it is called Corno.
³¹ Robert L. Hall, "The Material Symbols of the Winnebago Sky and Earth Moieties," in The Meaning of Things: Material Culture and Symbolic Expression, ed. Ian Hodder (London: Unwin Hyman, 1989) 178-184 [181].
³² Sahagún, Florentine Codex, 7:67 line 1 Citlalxonecuilli.
^32.0 There may have been some confusion between Ursa Major and Minor. Just as in the Old World both were called "the Bear," so in the new we find that Xonecuilli, being itself a descriptive term, has been applied to the other Ursa constellation which fits the xonecuilli's S shape as well. Nuttall tells us, "To Don Mariano Rojas, the oldest inhabitant of the town of Tepoztlan (Morelia) in which the Nahuatl language is not only spoken, but cultivated, I am indebted for the interesting personal communication that one of his earliest recollections is that of his old grandfather pointing out to him the seven stars of the constellation of Ursa Major and telling him that its name was Xonecuilli." Zelia Nuttall, "A Penitential Rite of the Ancient Mexicans," Archaeological and Ethnological Papers of the Peabody Museum, 1, #1 (1888-1904): 437-462 [460].
^32.0.1 Historia de los Mexicanos por sus pinturas, Ch. 4, p. 619.
^32.1 This is a decisive consideration for Hall. Hall, "The Material Symbols of the Winnebago Sky and Earth Moieties," 181. He also points out that before Polaris (of Ursa Minor) assumed the position of Pole Star, it had been held by Thuban of Draco, a constellation which itself has the reverse S shape. Hall, 181-182.
³³ Sahagún, Florentine Codex, 7:38 fig. 21-11.
³⁴ «... la estrella Xonecuilli que es la encomienda de Santiago, que es la que está por parte del Sur, hacia las Indias y chinos ...» Hernando Alvarado Tezozómoc, Cronica Mexicana, ed. Jose M. Vigil (Mexico City: Ireneo Paz, 1878 [1598]) 574.
³⁵ Anthony F. Aveni, Skywatchers (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2001) 34 fig. 12. The fact that it is a mirror image means that it is a backward S and not compatible with the illustration in Sahagún.
³⁶ Aveni, Skywatchers, 36.
³⁷ Nuttall, "A Penitential Rite of the Ancient Mexicans," 461 note.
³⁸ Miller and Taube, Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya, 66a, s.v. "color."
³⁹ Radin, The Winnebago Tribe, 170-172.
⁴⁰ Hall, "The Material Symbols of the Winnebago Sky and Earth Moieties," passim.
^40.1 Paul Radin, "Winnebago Tales," Journal of American Folklore, 22 (1909): 288-300. E. W. Lenders, "The Myth of the 'Wah-ru-hap-ah-rah,' or the Sacred Warclub Bundle," Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, 46 (1914): 404-420. Told by Joseph LaMère, Bear Clan, to Radin in the summer of 1908 and to Lenders in Aug.- Sept., 1909.
^40.2 Charles E. Brown, Wisconsin Indian Place Legends (Madison: Works Progress Administration, Wisconsin, 1936): 5; Paul Radin, The Winnebago Tribe (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990 [1923]) 166.
^40.3 Mary Carolyn Marino, A Dictionary of Winnebago: An Analysis and Reference Grammar of the Radin Lexical File (Ph.D. Thesis, University of California, Berkeley, December 14, 1968 [69-14,947]) 159, sv mące.
^40.4 Kenneth L. Miner, Winnebago Field Lexicon (University of Kansas: June, 1984) s. v.
^40.5
41 Based on Seler, Collected Works, 4:218 fig. 12.
⁴² Based on Seler, Collected Works, 4:219 fig. 16a.
⁴³ Based on Seler, Collected Works, 5:54 fig. 63.
⁴⁴ Wisconsin Historical Society, Image ID: 26878.
⁴⁵ Based on George Catlin, Portrait of Kakajuka, detail.
⁵⁰ Seler, Collected Works, 3:213. See also Guilhem Olivier, "Sacred Bundles, Arrows, and New Fire: Foundation and Power in the Mapa de Cuauhtinchan No. 2," Davíd Carrasco and Scott Sessions, Cave, City, and Eagle's Nest: An Interpretive Journey through the Mapa de Cuauhtinchan, Issue 2 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2007) 297b.
^50.1 Nuttall, "The Atlatl or Spear-Thrower Used by the Ancient Mexicans," 173-198 [post 198 plates II and III].
⁵¹ Seler, Collected Works, 3:213b.
⁵² Sahagún, Florentine Codex, 2:159 — "And there were two head fire-dirlls; they became as his horns; they were on two sides. (auh ume in quammalitli, iuhquin iquaquauh muchioa, nenecoc in mamani.)"
⁵³ Seler, Collected Works, 3:213a. Since these fire sticks are entwined with his hair, they are called mi-tzontli, "arrow wig," and tlacoch-tzontli, "spear wig."
^53.1 Paul Radin, "The Sun," Transcripts in English of Winnebago Tales, Freeman #3860 (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society) Winnebago IV, #7L, 1-9 [5, 8].
⁵⁴ Louise Phelps Kellogg, "The Winnebago Visit to Washington in 1828," Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters, 29 (1935): 347-354.
^54.1 Hojinažiga was living at the Third Lake (Lake Waubesa) in 1832, where he was apparently chief. He list listed in the Kinzie Receipt Rolls as Mau-ah-kee-o-tshump-kaw, which is for Mąagiocąpka, "One Who Flashes on the Ends of the Earth." He was living in a large lodge with four other men, five women, and two children. Mąagiocąpka is the clan name given to Spotted Arm, elsewhere corrupted as Man-ahkee-tsthump-kaw, which is identified as a name of Spotted Arm, "the most prominent sage and counselor." Lawson, Winnebago Tribe, 155. Lurie, "A Check List of Treaty Signers by Clan Affiliation" (maɁakihojǝŋpgǝ, 59, #32) identifies him as a member of the Thunder Clan. Parkinson says that in 1832, "Spotted Arm had the appearance of a man of sixty, ... was stoop-shouldered and ill-shaped; but possessed a mild and agreeable temperament." Peter Parkinson, "Notes on the Black Hawk War," Collections of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin, X (1888): 184-212 [189-190]. He, along with others, was briefly detained as a hostage to secure the good behavior of the Hocągara during the Black Hawk War. Moses M. Strong, "The Indian Wars of Wisconsin," Wisconsin Historical Collections, VIII (1879 [1910]): 241-286 [272, 276].
⁵⁵ There were fifteen members of the delegation plus the interpreter Pauquette. Hojįnąžįga is not mentioned among the few sketched by Kellogg.

[Col. John] Kinzie prepared for their return journey and had the tribesmen fitted out with clothes by a fashionable tailor, who made them fifteen blue frock coats, as many pair of leggings to match, sixteen blue cloth caps (perhaps one for Pauquette), cloth and ribbon for the squaw, three dozen pair of stockings and twelve pairs of shoes. ... Horses, saddles, and bridles were there bought for them, and they journeyed homeward to their separate Wisconsin villages, with many gifts to testify to the welcome they had received. The visit of the chiefs was justified by its results. The expense of $10,272.05 to the government was less than a war would have been.

Kellogg, "The Winnebago Visit to Washington in 1828," 353-354.

Chapter 24. The Pursuit of the Monster.

d

Chapter 25. The Fire Sticks of Orion

⁰ di Ke A Ae Ki di. w n tteAe Le Ai L. oy Le de. Ko no K we de. Ai w Ke A xitti. ni dotto w Ki di L n Kette Ki di ow tte. Ao n L tteAe deKe. dA w diAi L tte deKe. di Ke. A Al Ai Le de. de de rKe. A Ae L. Ke Le lA ny d. Ai Le de. w n tteAe Le Ai Le de. A[y] ni Ki Ai d tti ra de. A ntt Ai noKo K n Ki Le de. Ai Low Kini xitti. i ttAo Lo diAi K Ai d tti Ki di K nK deAe. e dA n. Ai noKo liAi L. Ai L tt L xitti de. de e.

Žigé hąhegiži wanącerehira ’ųįreže. Kųnųga weže, "Híwągeha nišjųwągiži, ranąkjegiži, ’ųwaje. Honaraceške, šawaširaješke." Žigé hąhąp hireže. Žežesge hąhéra kerepanaižą hireže. Wanącere hireže. Hainigi, hižą jis’aže. Haną́c hinųk kąnąkireže. hiroagnįxjį Įcorušika hižą jigiži kąnąkše. Ešana hinųk pįra hirajaraxjįže, žee.

Paul Radin, "Intcohorúcika," Winnebago Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society) Notebook #14: 1-67 [12-14].
^0.1 Paul Radin, The Winnebago Tribe (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990 [1923]) 63.
¹ Bernardino de Sahagún, Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain. Book 7: The Sun, Moon, and Stars, and the Binding of the Years. Trs. Charles E. Dibble, Arthur J. O. Anderson. Archaeological Institute of America, Monograph 14, Part 8, Book 7. (Santa Fe: School of American Research, 1953) fig. 21; Aveni, Skywatchers, 32 fig. 10.
² Cowan makes an interesting observation that applies to the present odd depiction of Orion. He notes that the northeast Yavapai called the Belt of Orion "Mountain Sheep," but their western tribe depicts this same constellation as four stars in a straight line. "We might gather from this that there was a tendency to perceive the stars in linear arrangements. These perceived clusters of stars have a loose Gestalt-like meaning for the observer; their patterns are representative, but unlike the myths of the western world, each point in the star group retains its identity. Each star is not seen as an individual playing a smaller part in a larger scenario." Thaddeus M. Cowan, "Effigy Mounds and Stellar Representation: A Comparison of Old World and New World Alignment Schemes," in Archaeoastronomy in Pre-Columbian America, ed. Anthony F. Aveni (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1975) 217-235 [220].
³ Michael D. Coe, "Native Astronomy in Mesoamerica," in Anthony F. Aveni (ed.), Archaeoastronomy in Pre-Columbian America (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1975) 3-31 [26]; Aveni, Skywatchers, 36.
⁴ Antonio de Nebrija, Dos excelentes diccionarios latino-español (Salamanca, 1492) y español-latino (1495), s.v. astilejos.
⁵  "Of these one was square sticks of soft wood with a notch on one side, the other was a cylindrical, hard wood, which placed vertically on the notch of that, and giving continuous turns between the palms of the hands, by rubbing a petite powder was plucked into combustion. The mamalhuaztli is called, Tletlaxoni, that which gives or throws fire; Tlecuahuitl, fire stick." Orozco y Berra, Historia antigua y de la conquista de México, 1:118, nt. 1.
⁶ Manuel Orozco y Berra, Historia antigua y de la conquista de México, 1:114, citing Sahagún, Bk. 1, Ch. 13.
⁷ Orozco y Berra, Historia antigua y de la conquista de México, 1:114.
⁸ This is why the image of Mamalhuaztli is also associated with the date ome Acatl, "Two Reed," the feast day of Tescatlipoca, as said here: "From the first plate of the Codex Mendocino the mamalhuaztli is seen attached to the ome Acatl sign." Manuel Orozco y Berra, Historia antigua y de la conquista de México, 2:46.
⁹ x
¹⁰ "Las tres estrellas del cinturon de Orion eran conocidas bajo la denominacion de Yoaltecutli y Yacahuiztli, las tomaban por agüero, y les ofrecían incienso á la prima noche, á la hora de las tres y al alba: las distinguían por mamalhuaztli, nombre de los palos que servían para encender el fuego nuevo." Orozco y Berra, Historia antigua y de la conquista de México, 1:32.
¹¹ Radin-Marino, Lipkind, Susman, Miner, s.v.
^x x
^x x
^x x
^x x

Chapter 26. The Hand, Long Arm, and the Fire Drill

¹ In addition, we also have a good reflex from the Arapaho, who are an Algonquian tribe, and the Arikara who are Caddoan. An intriguing possibility from far away California suggests itself. "To the Maricopa there is an unnamed star group (the Pleiades?) that represents a hand print." See Thaddeus M. Cowan, "Effigy Mounds and Stellar Representation: A Comparison of Old World and New World Alignment Schemes," in Archaeoastronomy in Pre-Columbian America, ed. Anthony F. Aveni (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1975) 217-235 [221]. The story goes that when Kokomát broke the sky, Thoshipá caught it, preventing it from crashing down. In the north he left his finger prints, and these are seen in a group of stars today. Since Orion is not in the north, it cannot be the star group to which the Maricopa story refers. However, although the stars are different, we do have some of the same ideas: the sky has an opening and a hand is placed over it to close it. Edward S. Curtis, The North American Indian : Being a Series of Volumes Picturing and Describing the Indians of the United States, and Alaska, 20 vv. (Cambridge, Mass.: The University Press, 1926) 2:86. Hagar notses, "The Osage recognize an Arm constellation, but it has not been identified. The Cherokee also have an Arm, which they see in the "V" shaped Hyades. This is the broken arm of a man who fled to the skies because he cold no longer be of any use on earth. Stansbury Hagar, "Cherokee Star-Lore". Boas anniversary volume: anthropological papers written in honor of Franz Boas. New York: G. E. Stechert & Co. 1906. pp. 354–366 [365-366]. The Timagami Ojibway (Anishanaabeg), have a story in which a woman who is the spiritual protector of the Mitewin sits over the hole in the sky. Frank G. Speck, Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Canada: Anthropological Series, ix, 47; reprinted in Stith Thompson, Tales of the North American Indians (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1929) 126-127. This would seem to make the hole in the sky a portal of reincarnation.
² Bear's Arm, "3. The Sacred Arrow," in Martha Warren Beckwith, Mandan and Hidatsa Mythology, Publications of the Folk-Lore Foundation (Poughkeepsie: Vassar College) #10 (1930): 22-52 [41-42]. Cf. another version in which the brothers are Atùtish and Mahash, who are themselves raised by the brothers Long Tail and Spotted Body. Mahash rescues his brother by turning into an ant. Washington Matthews, A Folk-tale of the Hidatsa Indians, 136-143 [136-139] = The Ethnography and Philology of the Hidatsa Indians, The United States Geological and Geographical Survey, Miscellaneous Publications, No. 7 (Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1877) 63-70.
3.1 Timothy P. McCleary, The Stars We Know: Crow Indian Astronomy and Lifeways (Prospect Hills, Illinois: Waveland Press, 1997) 51-57. The Twins were called, Bahā́ Awū́asšītūaš ("Thrown into the Spring"), and Batā́rasšiāritciasšītūaš ("Thrown Behind the Tipi Lining").
^3.1.1 McCleary, The Stars We Know, 57-62.
^3.1.2 Grandmother's Knife, "3. Lodge Boy and Thrown-Away," in Lowie, "Myths and Traditions of the Crow Indians," Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. 25, part 1 (New York: Trustees of the American Museum of Natural History, 1918) 94-98 [98].
^3.2 Ronald Goodman, Lakota Star Knowledge: Studies in Lakota Stellar Theology (Rosebud Sioux Reservation: Siñte Gleska University, 1992) 26-27. He mentions a version by Ollie Napesin which no doubt connects the Hand asterism to the story told in DeMallie (see next entry).
^3.3 Presumably Morning Star (of Venus). The Sixth Grandfather, Black Elk's Teachings Given to John G. Neihardt, ed. Raymond J. DeMallie (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1984) 404-409.
⁴ Goodman, Lakota Star Knowledge, 27.
⁵ The Sixth Grandfather, Black Elk's Teachings Given to John G. Neihardt, ed. Raymond J. DeMallie (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1984) 404-409.
⁶ Ella Deloria, Dakota Texts (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2006) 133-137.
⁷ Cf. similar ideas among the Siberian Chukchees. In some of these tales the supreme being in the upper world, the Dawn, Creator, Polar-star Spirit, or whoever he may be, lets down by means of a strong rope the human visitor and his wife, after supplying them with provisions. Sometimes his rope is only a spider's thread, but is capable of sustaining twenty reindeer-loads without snapping. Waldemar Bogoras, "The Folklore of Northeastern Asia, as Compared with That of Northwestern America," American Anthropologist, New Series, 4, #4 (Oct. - Dec., 1902): 577-683 [ 591].
⁸ Lillian Brave (One Kernel of Corn Woman), "63. Long Teeth and Drinks Brain Soup," in Douglas R. Parks, Traditional Narratives of the Arikara Indians. Volumn 2, Stories of Other Narrators: Interlinear Linguistic Texts. Studies in the Anthropology of North American Indians, 4 vols. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1991) 2:693-715. Other versions of this myth: Ella P. Waters (Yellow Bird Woman), "85. The Star Husband and Old Woman's Grandson," in Parks, Traditional Narratives of the Arikara Indians, 2:889-922. White Bear, "15. The Girl who Married a Star," in George A. Dorsey, Traditions of the Arikara (Washington, D. C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1904) 56-60. George E. Lankford, Reachable Stars: Patterns in the Ethnoastronomy of Eastern North America (Tuscaloosa: The University of Alabama Press, 2007) 26-27.
^8.1 In a variant of this story, the child's name is Haçouusą, which means "Little Star" or "Star Child". Runs in the Water, "136. The Porcupine and the Woman who Climbed to the Sky," in George A. Dorsey and Alfred L. Kroeber, Traditions of the Arapaho (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997 [1903]) 332-338 [335]. In another variant, the child is called "Moon Child" (Hiiciisisą). Caspar Edson, "137. The Porcupine and the Woman who Climbed to the Sky," in Dorsey and Kroeber, Traditions of the Arapaho, 339. Hiiciis means both "Sun" and "Moon". "138. The Porcupine and the Woman who Climbed to the Sky," in Dorsey and Kroeber, Traditions of the Arapaho, 340-341 [341 nt 1]. Consequently, in one story he is said to be the son of the Sun and called Hiiciisteią. This same story also calls him Housą, "Porcupine's Son", and even Biaxuyan, "Found in Grass". "138. The Porcupine and the Woman who Climbed to the Sky," in Dorsey and Kroeber, Traditions of the Arapaho, 340-341.
^8.2 George A. Dorsey, The Arapaho Sun Dance: The Ceremony of the Offerings Lodge. Field Museum Anthropological Series (Chicago: the Museum: 1903) 5:212-228; George Lankford, The "Path of Souls": Some Death Imagery in the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex," in Ancient Objects and Sacred Realms: Interpretations of Mississippian Iconography, edd. F. Kent Reilly III and James F. Garber (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2007) 174-212 [198]. There is another version of this story in six variants: Fire Wood, "134. The Porcupine and the Woman who Climbed to the Sky," in George A. Dorsey and Alfred L. Kroeber, Traditions of the Arapaho (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997 [1903]) 321-329; Long Hair, "135. The Porcupine and the Woman who Climbed to the Sky," in Dorsey and Kroeber, Traditions of the Arapaho, 330-331; Runs in the Water, "136. The Porcupine and the Woman who Climbed to the Sky," in Dorsey and Kroeber, Traditions of the Arapaho, 332-338; Caspar Edson, "137. The Porcupine and the Woman who Climbed to the Sky," in Dorsey and Kroeber, Traditions of the Arapaho, 339; the source of this variant is an old woman of the tribe, "138. The Porcupine and the Woman who Climbed to the Sky," in Dorsey and Kroeber, Traditions of the Arapaho, 340-341. Yet another variant is contained in a footnote: Philip Rapid in Dorsey and Kroeber, Traditions of the Arapaho, 339-340, nt. 3.
^8.3 Dorsey and Kroeber, Traditions of the Arapaho, 205; Lankford, Reachable Stars, 234-235.
^8.4 Lankford, Reachable Stars, 234. The Kansa had a mnemonic device of "a hand of which four fingers are seen" which atood for a "song of sacrifice to the deities." This would seem to imply that the hand represented a deity. James Owen Dorsey, "The Mourning and War Customs of the Kansa," The American Naturalist, 9 (1885): 670-680 [676-677]. The Blackfeet had a stellar Hand, but the identity of its stars is unknown. The myth of how it arrived in the sky is not cognate to the Hand myths that we have thusfar investigated. Miller, Stars of the First People, 254-255; Lankford, Reachable Stars, 235.
^8.5 Hunab-Ku, the chief deity of the pantheon, was also known as Kinebahan, the "Teeth and Eyes of the Sun." The emphasis on his teeth and eyes may be another case of Seven Macaw's presumptuousness.
⁹ This is my own retelling of the story, which comes from Popol Vuh: The Mayan Book of the Dawn of Life, trs. Dennis Tedlock. Revised Edition (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996 [1985]) 71-74, 77-81.
¹⁰ According to modern Quiché, his name refers to the seven stars of the Big Dipper asterism. Miguel Alvarado López, Léxico médico Quiché-Español (Guatemala City: Instituto Indigenista Nacional, 1975) 73. Juan de León, Diccionario Quiché-Español (Guartemala City: Editorial Landivar, 1955) 33, s. v. gucup cakix. Tedlock, Popol Vuh, 237, note to page 73. Milbrath, Star Gods of the Maya, 274a.
^10.1 Milbrath, Star Gods of the Maya, 266b.
¹⁷ Munro S. Edmonson, The Book of Counsel: The Popol Vuh of the Quiche Maya of Guatemala. Middle American Research Institute, Publication 35 (New Orleans: Tulane University Press, 1971) 11-12. "In this area of Mesoamerica [Utatlán], the stars of Orion are seen in a true zenith position. This may be why they express the notion of centrality among the Quiché Maya, who associate Orion with a deity known as Heart of the Sky." Milbrath, Star Gods of the Maya, 266b. However, using StarryNight software, set at Utatlán, 500 BC (and other dates), Alnilam transits in November and December about 22° from the zenith. In 1400 AD, as close at Alnilam gets to the zenith is on Dec. 18, where it has an angular separation of 16° 41'. However, far to the south, at the present site of Georgetown, Guyana, the angular separation at the same date is 8° 26', with Betelgeuse and Bellatrix actually passing over or very near the zenith. Among the Caribs (Kaliña) of this region, Orion has a very prominent role. Edmundo Magaña, "Orion entre los Kaliña de Surinam," Conferencia Ecole des Hautes e tu des en Scienccs Sociales, 17 de mayo de 1988: 385-403. Since Mintaka lies nearly on the Celestial Equator, at an equatorial city like Quito, Equador, on December 17, 1400 when it transited at 2354:22 hours, Mintaka was 42' from the zenith. So for the Cingulum to be at the Heart of the Sky, it would have to be viewed from an equatorial region.

To Huracán, cf. Manbokouicayen, "the one-legged man" (Orion). R. Breton, Dictionnaire Caraïbe-Français (Leipzig, 1892 [Auxerre: 1665]) 192, 194. Magaña and Jara, "The Carib Sky," 113. The Hocągara have One-Legged One, who is esoterically identified with the Sun.
¹¹ References to the episode are already present on the Late Preclassic stela 25 from Izapa, near the Pacific coast, where a man with a mutilated arm looks upward towards a bird perched on a pole, and on a facade of the Copan ballcourt, where a war-serpent head inserted between the legs of a large bird holds the severed arm of Hunahpu. Julia Guernsey, Ritual and Power in Stone. The Performance of Rulership in Mesoamerican Izapa Style Art (Austin: University of Texas Press 2006) 111-113, figs. 5.29 and 5.30. The episode has also been connected to Izapa's stela 2, where two small figures assumed to be the Twin Heroes flank a large descending bird personifier (perhaps a royal ancestor). Michael D. Coe, "The Hero Twins: Myth and Image," in The Maya Vase Book: A Corpus of Rollout Photographs of Maya Vases, Volume 1 (New York: Kerr Associates, 1989) 161-162.
¹² Guernsey, Ritual and Power in Stone, 112. Frank J. Lipp, The Mixe of Oaxaca: Religion, Ritual, and Healing (Austin : University of Texas Press 1991) 75. Guernsey gives this account of the myth, quoting Lipp,

A legend recorded by Lipp recounts the exploits of twins, a boy and a girl who, after being refused shelter in a village, were carried off in the night by a giant animal:

When they woke up the next morning, they did not know where they were ... The girl, who was more alert, saw the giant animal who had carried them off sleeping in a large tree. The children then cut sticks and picked up points to make arrows, six arrows for each twin. The girl went first to shoot but was unable to hit the beast. When only two arrows were left, the boy took the arrows and shot at the animal, which fell off the mountain and landed with a resounding echo below.

The correlations between the Mixe legends and the Maya Popol Vuh story are immediately clear. First, although the "giant animal" in the Mixe legend is not identified specifically as a bird, its perch in a tree is suggestive of such. Second, its defeat by the twin as the result of a successful shot closely parallels the Popol Vuh account. These analogies, especially in conjunction with the imagery of Izapa Stela 25, suggest an ancient, shared creation narrative whose roots are discernible in the monumental record of the Preclassic period.

Despite the geographical proximity of the Mixe to the Maya, it is clear that the Sioux "Lost Arm" myths are much closer in detail to the Maya than is the Mixe story.
¹³ Edmundo Magaña and Fabiola Jara, "The Carib Sky," Journal de la Société des Américanistes, 68 (1982): 105-132 [113-115, s. v. Epietembo]. Walter E. Roth, An Inquiry into the Animism and Folklore of the Guiana Indians, in the 30th Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, (Washington:  U. S. Government Printing Office, 1915 [1909]) 134-135.
¹⁴ William Henry Brett, Legends and Myths of the Aboriginal Indians of British Guiana, 2d ed. (London: W. W. Gardner, 1880) 191-200. Frederik Paul Penard and Arthur Philip Penard, De Meschetende Aanbidders der Zonneslang (Paramaribo: H. B. Heyde, 1907) 1:59-63, 1:95, 1:105, 1:117. De Meschetende Aanbidders der Zonneslang: Het Woord van den Indianischen Messias (Paramaribo: 1908) 2:39-43. Willem G. Ahlbrinck, Encyclopaedic der Karaïben (Amsterdam: Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen, 1931) 371-372.
^14.1 Magaña and Jara, "The Carib Sky," 113, from Brett, Legends and Myths of the Aboriginal Indians of British Guiana, 191-200.
^14.2 Magaña and Jara, "The Carib Sky," 131.
^14.3 Magaña and Jara, "The Carib Sky," 115.
^14.4 Charles Daniel Dance, Chapters from a Guianese Log-book: Or The Folk-lore and Scenes of Sea-coast and River Life in British Guiana; Comprising Sketches of Indian, Boviander, and Negro Life (Georgetown, British Guiana, Royal Gazette, 1881) 296; Roth, §208, p. 262.

Livaldo
The Gray Tinamou

^14.5 Roth, §210, p. 264.
^14.6 Roth, An Inquiry into the Animism and Folklore of the Guiana Indians, 134-135.
¹⁵ Michel Graulich, Myths of Ancient Mexico, trs. Bernard R. Ortiz de Montellano and Thelma Ortiz de Montellano (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1997) 48.
¹⁶ Juan de León, Mundo Quiché (Guatemala City: Miscelánea, 1945) 44-45. Robert M. Carmack, The Quiché Maya of Utatlán: The Evolution of a Highland Guatemala Kingdom (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1981) 356. Milbrath, Star Gods of the Maya, 266b.

¹ Plenty Hawk, "1. Lodge Boy and Thrown Away," in Robert H. Lowie, "Myths and Traditions of the Crow Indians," Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. 25, part 1 (New York: Trustees of the American Museum of Natural History, 1918) 74-85.
² Timothy P. McCleary, The Stars We Know: Crow Indian Astronomy and Lifeways (Prospect Hills, Illinois: Waveland Press, 1997) 51-57.
³ Bear's Arm, "3. The Sacred Arrow," in Martha Warren Beckwith, Myths and Hunting Stories of the Mandan and Hidatsa Sioux, Publications of the Folk-Lore Foundation (Poughkeepsie: Vassar College) #10 (1930): 22-52 [42]. Cf. another version in which the brothers are Atùtish and Mahash, who are themselves raised by the brothers Long Tail and Spotted Body. Mahash rescues his brother by turning into an ant. Washington Matthews, A Folk-tale of the Hidatsa Indians, 136-143 [136-139] = The Ethnography and Philology of the Hidatsa Indians, The United States Geological and Geographical Survey, Miscellaneous Publications, No. 7 (Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1877) 63-70.
⁴ Martha Warren Beckwith, "Mythology of the Oglala Dakota," The Journal of American Folklore, 43, #170 (October-December, 1930): 339-442 [386-389]. Julian Rice, Ella Deloria's Iron Hawk (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1993) Lakota: 38-48, ss. 218-336; English: 78-90.
⁵ The Sixth Grandfather, Black Elk's Teachings Given to John G. Neihardt, ed. Raymond J. DeMallie (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1984) 404-409. Ronald Goodman, Lakota Star Knowledge: Studies in Lakota Stellar Theology (Rosebud Sioux Reservation: Siñte Gleska University, 1992) 27.
^5.1 Martha Warren Beckwith, "Mythology of the Oglala Dakota," The Journal of American Folklore, 43, #170 (October-December, 1930): 339-442 [386-389]. Julian Rice, Ella Deloria's Iron Hawk (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1993) Lakota: 38-48, ss. 218-336; English: 78-90.
⁶ The story spends some time in describing how she shifted around until she was resting on the small of his back. In Teton folklore, it is said, "Whirlwinds are caused by a chrysalis, called the wa-mni-yo-mni, which the Tetons say is found in the small of the back of some buffaloes." J. Owen Dorsey, "Teton Folk-Lore Notes", The Journal of American Folklore, Vol. 2, #5 (1889): 133-139 [137].
⁷ To this compare the Shoshone tale in which a winged Ogre seizes Coyote's nephew and flies away with him through a hole in the sky. Buffalo Bill, "Coyote and His Nephew," in Robert H. Lowie, Shoshonean Tales, The Journal of American Folklore, Vol. 37, ##143/144 (Jan.-June, 1924): 1-242, Story 6: 109-113 [112]. The idea that there is an above world accessible through a hole in the sky is an idea found in the great Siberian homeland of the American Indians. This is what the Chukchee think on the subject:

Each world has a hole in the zenith of the sky, right under the base of the polar star; and the shamans slip through this hole while going from one world to another. The heroes of several tales fly up through this hole, riding an eagle or a thunderbird. Through this hole the people of the upper world may look down upon the lower one. Waldemar Bogoras, "The Folklore of Northeastern Asia, as Compared with That of Northwestern America," American Anthropologist, New Series, 4, #4 (Oct. - Dec., 1902): 577-683 [590].

⁶ Ella Deloria, Dakota Texts (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2006) 133-137.
⁷ Lillian Brave (One Kernel of Corn Woman), "63. Long Teeth and Drinks Brain Soup," in Douglas R. Parks, Traditional Narratives of the Arikara Indians. Volume 2, Stories of Other Narrators: Interlinear Linguistic Texts. Studies in the Anthropology of North American Indians, 4 vols. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1991) 2:693-715 [711-714].
⁸ Alfred Morsette, "4. Long Teeth and Drinks Brain Soup," in Douglas R. Parks, Traditional Narratives of the Arikara Indians. Volume 1, Stories of Alfred Morsette: Interlinear Linguistic Texts. Studies in the Anthropology of North American Indians, 4 vols. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1991) 1:22-43 [1:39-43].
⁹ Paul Radin, "Intcohorúcika," Winnebago Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society Library) Notebook #14.
¹⁰ Edmundo Magaña and Fabiola Jara, "The Carib Sky," Journal de la Société des Américanistes, 68 (1982): 105-132 [113-115, s. v. Epietembo]. Walter E. Roth, An Inquiry into the Animism and Folklore of the Guiana Indians, in the 30th Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, (Washington:  U. S. Government Printing Office, 1915 [1909]) 134-135.
¹¹ Frank J. Lipp, The Mixe of Oaxaca: Religion, Ritual, and Healing (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1991) 75-76. Julia Guernsey, Ritual and Power in Stone. The Performance of Rulership in Mesoamerican Izapa Style Art (Austin: University of Texas Press 2006) 112.
¹² Popol Vuh: The Mayan Book of the Dawn of Life, trs. Dennis Tedlock. Revised Edition (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996 [1985]) 71-74, 77-81.
²² Orozco y Berra, Historia antigua y de la conquista de México, 1:499 (citing Sahagún).
²³ Bernardino de Sahagún, Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain. Book 7: The Sun, Moon, and Stars, and the Binding of the Years. Trs. Charles E. Dibble, Arthur J. O. Anderson. Archaeological Institute of America, Monograph 14, Part 8, Book 7:11. (Santa Fe: School of American Research, 1953) fig. 21; Aveni, Skywatchers, 32, fig. 10. A tranlsation based on the German rendering of the Nahuatl text replaces "wrist" with "hand": "And therefore [the constellation] is called the Drill (Mamalhuaztli), because the fire stick equipment resembles it. Because if one starts the fire stick equipment, really the fire sticks bore themselves into one another, so that the fire flares up, so that it breaks out, so that it kindles itself. And thus originated as well the custom that one burned oneself on the hand, our men burning themselves on the hand to prove reverence to him [Mamalhuaztli]. They were afraid, the men frightened themselves and said and meant that anyone who does not burn himself on the hand would have to drill fire in his hand in Mictlan (Spiritland), once he had died. Thus, everyone of our men burned himself on the hand, bringing this brand to both sides in his hand according to order and rule. Thus, they copied Mamalhuaztli. In this way the thing came into an arranged and regulated condition, so thus regulated and arranged, their hand burn was in their hand." Here is the Nahuatl text: Auh ynic mitoa mamalhuaztli, ytech moneneuilia yn tlequavitl. yehica yn yquac tlequauhtlaxo, ca momamali yn tlequavitl, ynic vetzi, ynyc xotla, ynic mopitza tletl. no yoan ynic nematlatiloya, ynic momatlatiaya toquichti, yehoatl quimacacia. mimacacia, ymacaxoya, mitoaya, quilmach, yn aquin amo nematlatile, ymac tlequauh tlaxoz yn mictlan, yniquac omic. yehica yn toquichti muchi tlacatl momatlatiaya, nenecoc ynmac quiuiuipanaya, quitetecpanaya yn innematlatil. yc quitlayehecalhuiaya yn mamalhuaztli. yniuh vipantoc, tecpantoc, noyuh quiuiuipanaya, quitetecpanaya yn inmac ynnematlatil. Bernardino de Sahagún, Wahrsagerei, Himmelskunde und Kalender der alten Azteken (Historia general de las cosas de Nueva España), Libros 5-7 (Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer, 1950) 42-45.
²⁴ This is the Spanish text: Llaman a estas estrellas mamalhuaztli y por este mismo nõbre llaman a los palos con q̃ sacan lumbre ponq̃ les parece q̃ tienen alguna semeiança cõ ellas y que de alli les vino esta manera de sacar fuego. De aqui tamaron por costumbre de hazer vnas quemaduras en la moñeca los varones a honra de aq̃llas estrellas. Dezian que el q̃ no fuese señalado de aquellas quemaduras quando se muriese q̃ alla en el infierno avian de sacar el fuego de su moñeca barrenãdola como qñ aca sacã el fuego del palo. Sahagún, Florentine Codex, Book 7:60-62. The English translation given in the text is by Charles E. Dibble and Arthur J. O. Anderson.
²⁵ Sahagún, Florentine Codex, Book 7:11.
²⁶ Orozco y Berra, Historia antigua y de la conquista de México, 1:32.
²⁷ John Bierhorst, A Nahuatl-English Dictionary and Concordance to the Cantares Mexicanos: with an Analytic Transcription and Grammatical Notes (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1985) ss. vv.
¹¹⁶ Dorsey, The Arapaho Sun Dance, 5:224. The variant of this myth says nothing about the old woman making the bow-lance for Little Star. There he simply has it as his possession without any indication of its origins. Runs in the Water, "136. The Porcupine and the Woman who Climbed to the Sky," in George A. Dorsey and Alfred L. Kroeber, Traditions of the Arapaho (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997 [1903]) 332-338.
¹¹⁷ Dorsey, The Arapaho Sun Dance, 5:225. The narrator of the variant story uses "bow" and "lance" interchangeably. Runs in the Water, "136. The Porcupine and the Woman who Climbed to the Sky," in Dorsey and Kroeber, Traditions of the Arapaho, 332-338 [338 nt 1].
¹¹⁸ Dorsey, The Arapaho Sun Dance, 5:225 nt 1. In a variant of this story, it is said that, "The bow had a swallow tied to it at one end, then a bluebird, then, in the middle where it was held, a king-fisher, next a chicken-hawk, and at the other end a small dark bird. Eagle, wood-pecker, prairie-chicken, crow, magpie, and all birds' feathers were tied to the bow." Runs in the Water, "136. The Porcupine and the Woman who Climbed to the Sky," in Dorsey and Kroeber, Traditions of the Arapaho, 332-338 [337].
¹¹⁹ Dorsey, The Arapaho Sun Dance, 5:228.
¹²⁰ Runs in the Water, "136. The Porcupine and the Woman who Climbed to the Sky," in Dorsey and Kroeber, Traditions of the Arapaho, 332-338 [338 nt 1]. A snake that Little Star spared attached his body to the hero's bow. "There were also berries on it, strung like beads and painted white. This string of beads was the snake's body. The Little Star said: 'The upper end points to the sky; it belongs to mankind. You are the lower end, the earth.' They separated, the snake going underground, and he on his way with the bow." Runs in the Water, "136. The Porcupine and the Woman who Climbed to the Sky," in Dorsey and Kroeber, Traditions of the Arapaho, 332-338 [337-338].
^x x
^x x

Footnotes to "junk" material from earlier work:

¹¹⁴ Paul Radin, "Intcohorúcika," Winnebago Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society Library) #14, 45-64.
¹²¹ Eduard Seler, Collected Works in Mesoamerican Linguistics and Archaeology (English Translations of German Papers from Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur Amerikanischen Sprach- und Alterthumskunde), J. Eric S. Thompson and Francis B. Richardson, edd., 2d ed. (Lancaster, California: Labyrinthos, 1996) ...
¹²² "Pauahtuns using hand to make MANIK sign in front of ma Ahaj glyphs," The Maya Vase Book, Volume 6: 975. Research Mayavase.com, Maya Vase Data Base, An Archive of Rollout Photographs Created by Justin Kerr, Kerr Number: 6599.
¹²³ Edward Winslow Gifford, Culture Element Distributions, XII: Apache-Pueblo. University of California Anthropological Records, 4: 1. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1940) 53-154 [156, no. 2273].
¹²⁷ Seler, 5.334.
¹²⁸ Milbrath, Star Gods of the Maya, 264.
¹²⁹ Milbrath, Star Gods of the Maya, 256, Table 7.2.
¹³⁰ According to Starry Night Software (www.starrynight.com), set at Mexico City.
¹³¹ Milbrath, Star Gods of the Maya, 264.
¹³² Carl Lumholtz, Symbolism of the Huichol Indians, Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History, v. 3, pt. 1 (New York: American Museum of Natural History, 1900) 57-58; Seler, Collected Works, 4.193-194.
¹³³ Cora vocabulary of P. Josef Ortega cited in Seler, Collected Works, 4.194a.
¹³⁴ Gabrielle Vail, The Deer-Trapping Almanacs in the Madrid Codex, in Papers on the Madrid Codex, edd. Victoria R. Bricker and Gabrielle Vail, Middle American Research Institute, Publication 64 (New Orleans: Tulane University, 1997) 73-110.

Chapter 27. The Portal of Souls

^x0 David Freidel, Linda Schele, and Joy Parker, Maya Cosmos: Three Thousand Years on the Shaman's Path (New York: Harper Collins, 1995) 215.
^x1 Freidel, Schele, and Parker, Maya Cosmos, 217.
¹ McCleary, The Stars We Know, 61.
² Gray Bull, "2. Lodge Boy and Thrown-Away," in Robert H. Lowie, "Myths and Traditions of the Crow Indians," Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. 25, part 1 (New York: Trustees of the American Museum of Natural History, 1918) 85-94 [93].
³ Seler, Collected Works, 5:55a-b; 4:145.
⁴ Bā-ā́ritsg-e in Crow. Plenty Hawk, "1. Lodge Boy and Thrown Away," 83.
⁵ According to the Hidatsa. Bear's Arm, "3. The Sacred Arrow," in Beckwith, Myths and Hunting Stories of the Mandan and Hidatsa Sioux, 23.
⁶ Gray Bull, "2. Lodge Boy and Thrown-Away," 91.
^6.1 Shown to the far left in Plate 21 in Susan Milbrath, Star Gods of the Maya: Astronomy in Art, Folklore, and Calendars (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1999) post 348.
^6.2 Linda Schele and Mary Miller, The Blood of Kings: Dynasty and Ritual in Maya Art (Fort Worth: Kimbell Art Museum, 1986) 194 plate 73a.
^6.3 Susan Milbrath, Star Gods of the Maya, 282b.
⁷ Bear's Arm, "3. The Sacred Arrow," in Beckwith, Myths and Hunting Stories of the Mandan and Hidatsa Sioux, 22-30.
⁸ Bear's Arm, "3. The Sacred Arrow," in Beckwith, Myths and Hunting Stories of the Mandan and Hidatsa Sioux, 33 (arrowheads), 40 (flaming arrow).
⁹ Grandmother's Knife, "3. Lodge Boy and Thrown-Away," in Lowie, "Myths and Traditions of the Crow Indians," Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. 25, part 1 (New York: Trustees of the American Museum of Natural History, 1918) 94-98 [98]. Gray Bull, "2. Lodge Boy and Thrown-Away," 91. McCleary, The Stars We Know, 60.
¹⁰ Plenty Hawk, "1. Lodge Boy and Thrown Away," 83.
¹¹ Gray Bull, "2. Lodge Boy and Thrown-Away," 93.
¹² See McCleary, The Stars We Know, 64 —

Ihkaléaxe [Sirius] has a helper, and this helper is suppposed to be a giant, a huge man. They call him Ischéenmuluxpawishe [Cedar Between the Eyes]. They say he has a cedar chip between his eyes, so that's why they call him Ischéenmuluxpawishe. He is the one that takes the dead people back to the Other Side, or where they go when they die. They attribute cannibalistic tendencies, they say that this man, this giant, Ischéenmuluxpawishe, he eats the dead people and that's why they fear him. He has cannibalistic tendencies.

So the souls of the dead are taken to Spiritland by a star in the Big Dipper, one who is also responsible for the devouring (decay ?) of the flesh.
¹³ Grandmother's Knife, "3. Lodge Boy and Thrown-Away," 98.
¹⁴ Lankford on fork in Milky Way.
¹⁸ Ronald Goodman, Lakota Star Knowledge: Studies in Lakota Stellar Theology (Rosebud Sioux Reservation: Siñte Gleska University, 1992) 22, 39.
¹⁹ The Sixth Grandfather, Black Elk's Teachings Given to John G. Neihardt, ed. Raymond J. DeMallie (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1984) 404-409. Goodman, Lakota Star Knowledge, 26-28.
²⁰ McCleary, The Stars We Know, 66. George Reed, jr., Dictionary of the Crow Language, Master of Science thesis, Dept. of Foreign Literatures & Linguistics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (1974) 72, s.v. óoshi — "cooked, ready (of food), burnt, dyed"; 92, s.v. "red" — hísshi.
²¹ Robert H. Lowie, The Religion of the Crow Indians, Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, 25, pt. 2 (New York: Published by Order of the Trustees, 1922) 316. "The Woman who Married Worms-in-his-face," in Lowie,"Myths and Traditions of the Crow Indians," 119-128 [125].
¹⁰ "On a night when all of the stars light up, very bright, people say, 'Kukéht asū́k' [lodges on the other side]. When people are facing death, they become afraid, and say things such as, 'I am afraid to die, I don't want to die.' They are told, 'Don't be afraid, even if you die you will be alive up there.' This is what the term 'Kukéht asū́k' means. People of many generations ago that have died, have moved camp and are all together, well and happy. They were here with us, but now they are gathered up there. There are many of them. Some have gone up there and they were told to come back because their time was not yet. That is how we know of these things. We are told of them by people that have been there and back. This is how we speak of the term heaven. This is the significance of the term, 'Kukéht asū́k'." McCleary, The Stars We Know, 79.
²⁰ Leonard Crow Dog, "The Ghost Wife," American Indian Myths and Legends, edd. Richard Erdoes and Alfonso Ortiz (New York: Pantheon Books, ca. 1984) 462-463.
³¹ Lankford, The "Path of Souls," [...].
³² Clarence Bloomfield Moore, Certain Aboriginal Remains of the Black Warrior River, Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 13 (1905): 125-244 [175]; Lankford, The "Path of Souls", 175, fig. 8.1.
³³ Robert L. Hall, An Archaeology of the Soul: North American Indian Belief and Ritual (Urbana & Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1997)162b; Lankford, The "Path of Souls", 179-191. See an illustration of this belief among the Micmac at Gottschall: A New Interpretation.
³⁴ Lankford, "The World on a String: Some Cosmological Components of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex," in Hero, Hawk, and Open Hand: American Indian Art of the Ancient Midwest and South (New Haven: Yale University Press and The Art Institute of Chicago, 2004) 207-218 [].
³⁵ This is what is said on the matter of the symbolism of the open hand in Robert Means Lawrence, The Magic Of The Horse-shoe, with Other Folk-Lore Notes (Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin and Company, 1898) 16-18 ("IV. The Symbol Of The Open Hand"). "It is worthy of note that the symbol of an open hand with extended fingers was a favorite talisman in former ages, and was to be seen, for example, at the entrances of dwellings in ancient Carthage. It is also found on Lybian and Phoenician tombs, as well as on Celtic monuments in French Brittany. Dr. H. C. Trumbull quotes evidence from various writers showing that this symbol is in common use at the present time in several Eastern lands. In the region of ancient Babylonia the figure of a red outstretched hand is still displayed on houses and animals; and in Jerusalem the same token is frequently placed above the door or on the lintel on account of its reputed virtues in averting evil glances. The Spanish Jews of Jerusalem draw the figure of a hand in red upon the doors of their houses; and they also place upon their children's heads silver handshaped charms, which they believe to be specially obnoxious to unfriendly individuals desirous of bringing evil either upon the children themselves, or upon other members of the household. In different parts of Palestine the open-hand symbol appears alike on the houses of Christians, Jews, and Moslems, usually painted in blue on or above the door. Claude Reignier Conder, R. E., in "Heth and Moab," remarks on the antiquity of this pagan emblem, which appears on Roman standards and on the sceptre of Siva in India. He is of the opinion that the figure of the red hand, whether sculptured on Irish crosses, displayed in Indian temples, or on Mexican buildings, is always an example of the same original idea, — that of a protective symbol. A white hand-print is commonly seen upon the doors and shutters of Jewish and Moslem houses in Beyrout and other Syrian towns; and even the Christian residents of these towns sometimes mark windows and flour-boxes with this emblem, after dipping the hand in whitewash, in order to "avert chilling February winds from old people and to bring luck to the bin." In Germany a rude amulet having the form of an open hand is fashioned out of the stems of coarse plants, and is deemed an ample safeguard against divers misfortunes and sorceries. It is called "the hand of Saint John," or "the hand of Fortune." The Jewish matrons of Algeria fasten little golden hands to their chidren's caps, or to their glass-bead necklaces, and they themselves carry about similar luck tokens. In northwestern Scotland whoever enters a house where butter is being made is expected to lay his hand upon the churn, thereby signifying that he has no evil designs against the butter-maker, and dissipating any possible effects of an evil eye. As a charm against malevolent influences, the Arabs of Algeria make use of rude drawings representing an open hand, placed either above the entrances of their habitations or within doors, — a symbolical translation of the well-known Arabic imprecation, " Five fingers in thine eye!" Oftentimes the same meaning is conveyed by five lines, one shorter than the others to indicate the thumb." It is interesting to note that in the Old World connections are drawn between the open hand and the eye.
^x x

Chapter 28. The Mystery of Three Deer.

Chapter 29. The Deer and the Hand.

¹ Seler, Collected Works, 1.123; Aveni, Skywatchers, 141, Table 15.
² Munro S. Edmonson, Quiché-English Dictionary. Middle American Research Institute, Tulane University, Publication 30 (New Orleans: Tulane University Press, 1965) 71, s.v. mazat.
³ Popol Vuh, translated with commentary by Dennis Tedlock, revised edition (New York: Simon & Schuster: 1996) 314, and for the Quiché calendar day-signs, see 205.
⁴ Seler, Collected Works, 1.147a.
⁵ John Montgomery, Dictionary of Maya Hieroglyphs, s.v. chi/CHI (chi) (T671).

Kerr Collection, Vase K6599 = Kerr #6599

A Pauahtun Using His Hand to Make a Manik Sign

⁶ Eduard Seler, "The Mexican Chronology, with Special Reference to the Zapotec Calendar," in Charles Pickering Bowditch, Eduard Seler, Mexican and Central American Antiquities, Calendar Systems, and History: Twenty-four Papers (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1904) 11-55 [30]. Boot also suggests that many of the hand glyphs in Maya hieroglyphics originated as conventional gestures. "T671 has the syllabic value chi, possibly having its origin in a hand-sign that referred to 'deer', chij in Classic Maya. The actual hand-sign may represent the antlers, a distinctive element of deer (compare to Barrera Vásquez 1981). Note for instance the chi-like antlers on Huk Si’ip 'Seven Deer', the 'Lord of the Deer', as illustrated on Dresden Codex 13C1 (see above)." Boot, 3. In a vase painting whose subject is reproduced at the right, we see the manik sign expressed as a hand gesture by one of the Pauhatuns. "Pauahtuns using hand to make MANIK sign in front of ma Ahaj glyphs," The Maya Vase Book, Volume 6: 975. Research Mayavase.com, Maya Vase Data Base, An Archive of Rollout Photographs Created by Justin Kerr, Kerr Number: 6599.
⁷ J. Eric S. Thompson, A Catalog of Maya Hieroglyphs (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1962) s. num. 671.
⁸ Christian Manfred Prager, “Die Inschriften von pusilhaepicraphische Analyse und Rekonstruktion der Geschichte einer klassischen Maya-Stätte,” Band 1, Epigraphische Analyse„ Magisterarbeit zur Erlangung des Grades eines Magister Artium M.A., vorgelegt der Philosophischen Fakultät der Rheinischen Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität zu Bonn (2002) 112, 291 (C5-D5). David Stuart and Stephen Houston, "Classic Maya Place Names" = Studies in Pre-Columbian Art and Archaeology, 33 (Washington: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1994) 11-12; David Stuart, "Hieroglyphs and Archaeology at Copan," Ancient Mesoamerica, 3, #1: 169-184 [181, fig. 8].
⁹ John S. Justeson, The Foreign Impact on Lowland Mayan Language and Script, Volume 53 of Middle American Research Institute (New Orleans: Middle American Research Institute, Tulane University, 1985): 21, 57; Prudence M. Rice, Maya Calendar Origins: Monuments, Mythistory, and the Materialization of Time (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2009) 66.
¹⁰ Rice, Maya Calendar Origins, 66.
¹¹ J. Eric S. Thompson, A Catalog of Maya Hieroglyphs (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1962), #796. Another example may be seen from Stela K in the Toledo District of Belize, position A1. Prager, “Die Inschriften von pusilhaepicraphische Analyse und Rekonstruktion der Geschichte einer klassischen Maya-Stätte,” 129.
¹² this should be the seventh day.
¹³ Erik Boot, "The Human Hand in Classic Maya Hieroglyphic Writing." MesoWeb.com (2003) p. 2 (s.v., chi, T671 = Z 160). Followed by Monika Ciura, "Hand gestures in courtly scenes depicted on Maya vases," Estudios Latinoamericanos, Revista de la Sociedad Poaca de Estudios Latinoamericanos, 35 (2015): 5-32 [26].
^14
15
16

Chapter 29. The Morning Star Connection.

⁰ ...
¹ ...
² Miller and Taube, An Illustrated Dictionary of the Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the May, 166, s.v. "Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli."
^2.1 Patrick Saurin, "Atamalcualiztli, ou à la recherche du Tamoanchan perdu, essai d'interprétation d'une fête religieuse des anciens mexicains," Archives de sciences sociales des religions, 119 (July-September, 2002): 147-168 [149].
³ We see the assumption, "Morning Star (known by the Winnebago as Red Horn)," Carol Diaz-Granados and James R. Duncan, "Reflections of Power, Wealth, and Sex in Missouri Rock-Art Motifs," in Carol Diaz-Granados and James R. Duncan, edd., The Rock-Art of Eastern North America: Capturing Images and Insight (Tuscaloosa & London: University of Alabama Press, 2004) 146, and 148-149 (where, curiously, they say he is also called "Hawk"), 150 (where one of his sons is identified with Morning Star), 203. The identity is maintained elsewhere by Diaz-Granados, Brown (where he is also said to be identical to a falcon-like Birdman), and F. Kent Reilly, who goes so far as to call Sam Blowsnake's Redhorn Cycle, "the Morning Star myth" — see James A. Brown, "The Cahokian Expression: Creating Court and Cult," in Hero, Hawk, and Open Hand: American Indian Art of the Ancient Midwest and South (New Haven: Yale University Press and The Art Institute of Chicago, 2004), caption to fig. 1, 115; Carol Diaz-Granados, "Marking Stone, Land, Body, and Spirit: Rock Art and Mississippian Iconography," in Hero, Hawk, and Open Hand, 148; F. Kent Reilly, "People of Earth, People of Sky: Visualizing the Sacred in Native American Art of the Mississippian Period," in Hero, Hawk, and Open Hand, 133.
⁴ John Harrison, The Giant or The Morning Star, translated by Oliver LaMère, in Paul Radin, Winnebago Notebooks, Freeman #3892 (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society) Winnebago III, #11a, Story 8: 92-117.
⁵ "Reason for Milky Way," in Paul Radin, Winnebago Notebooks, Freeman #3862 (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society) Winnebago I, #3: 105, 107b.
⁶ In speaking of the Morning Star, the Crow elder Wyola reported,

[My grandfather] said, "Don't point at that star. He is sacred." Baptists told him it is the Devil. We don't know for a fact, but they said that it is the Devil. Bird Far Away [a Baptist lay-minister at Lodge Grass in the 1920s] spoke to him about it. He told my grandfather that the Morning Star may have a lot of different stories about it, but it is the Devil. Maybe Baptists are afraid of this star [laughs].

This suggests that Christian ministers were substituting their own mythology in order to discourage the worship of Morning Star. Timothy P. McCleary, The Stars We Know: Crow Indian Astronomy and Lifeways (Prospect Hills, Illinois: Waveland Press, 1997) 34.
⁷ Pages 46-49 of Paul Radin, "The Man's Head," Winnebago Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society) Notebook #51: 1-61 (English only); Winnebago V, #13: 1-21, 26-61, and Winnebago V, #10: 22-25.
⁸ The Giant or The Morning Star, by John Harrison, translated by Oliver LaMere, in Paul Radin, Winnebago Notebooks, Freeman #3892 (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society) Winnebago III, #11a, Story 8: 92-117 [98-99].
⁹ Paul Radin, "The Chief of the Heroka," Winnebago Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society) Notebook #33, 65-66. Paul Radin, "Redhorn's Sons," Winnebago Notebooks, Freeman #3860 (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1908-1913) Winnebago IV, #7, Story 7a.
¹⁰ Willard Van Orman Quine, Word and Object (Cambridge: The MIT Press, 1960) 141-156.

Chaptr 30. The War of the Two Flints

x

Chaptr 31. Three Deer

Notes.

Chapter 32. Center of the Cosmos

^1
22 This is not an act of cruelty by Redhorn's sister-in-law, but behavior expected of her as a joking relative. The joking relation obtained for one's father's sister's children, mother's brother's children, mother's brothers, sisters-in-law, and brothers-in-law. Radin tells us, "In the two cases last named [sisters-in-law and brothers-in-law] not only was a man permitted to joke with those relatives but he was supposed to do so whenever he had an opportunity. Under no circumstances were any of these individuals supposed to take offense. This relationship was of course reciprocal." Radin, The Winnebago Tribe, 85.
²³ Radin, Winnebago Hero Cycles, 115-118.
²⁴ Robert L. Hall, An Archaeology of the Soul: North American Indian Belief and Ritual (Urbana & Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1997) 56, 151.
²⁶ Paul Radin, "The Red Man," Winnebago Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society) Notebook #6: 61-66.
²⁷ Paul Radin, "Redhorn's Nephews," Winnebago Notebooks, Freeman #3860 (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1908-1913) Winnebago IV, #7a: 12-13.
²⁸ Paul Radin, "Coon Skin Fur Coat," Winnebago Notebooks (American Philosophical Society Library) Notebook #59: 1-122; Paul Radin, "White Wolf," Winnebago Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society Library) Notebook #10: 1-64.
²⁹ Paul Radin, "A Man and His Three Dogs," in Winnebago Notebooks, Freeman #3853 (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society) Winnebago IV, #6: 143-147.
³⁰ Jigi Hocųk’ cínoknǫkšgúni. Wągwášoše xetéra hocįcį́nįgią gicoínegi. P’įxjį. Xetéhi nąúje, hahí warújenįk gip’į́giži caraxúrašana rúcgigis’áže. Sagerékjege wágiúnąkše. James StCyr, "Fleetfoot," in Paul Radin, Winnebago Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society) Notebook #19, Story II: 18.
³¹ The material on the Deer Clan and centrality comes from Paul Radin, The Winnebago Tribe (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990 [1923]) 198-201 [246-249]; and "Deer Clan Origin Myth," in Paul Radin, Winnebago Notebooks, Freeman #3899 (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society) Winnebago III, #19a: 1-13. See the Deer Clan Origin Myth.
³² A. A. MacDonell, Vedic Mythology (Delhi: Motilal Barnassidas: 1974 [1898]) 30.
³³ Sir Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1990 [1899]) 256a-b, s. v. कणॅ kárṇa.
³⁶ Harrison, The Giant or The Morning Star, 112.
³⁷ "6. Wąkx!istowi, the Man with the Human Head Earrings," in Skinner, "Traditions of the Iowa Indians," 427-506 [457-458].
³⁸ When a head is taken, its ghost may follow after the warparty and shove stragglers so that they stumble. This shows that the ghost is more drawn to the head than to any other part of his body. Paul Radin, "The Two Friends Who Became Reincarnated: The Origin of the Four Nights Wake," The Culture of the Winnebago as Described by Themselves (Baltimore: Special Publications of the Bollingen Foundation, #1, 1949) 12-46. Informant: John Rave (Bear Clan). The original text is in Paul Radin, Winnebago Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, n.d.) Notebook 43, 1-62. This story is discussed in Claude Lévi-Strauss, "Four Winnebago Myths," Structural Anthropology, vol. 2, trs. Monique Layton (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976) 198-210. Outside Native America, the head is identified with the soul, and the deceased are sometimes called "heads." Richard Broxton Onians, The Origins of European Thought about the Body, the Mind, the Soul, the World, Time, and Fate (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1951) 96-97. For a fuller discussion of this topic, see "The Gottschall Head."
³⁹ Bear's Arm, "3. The Sacred Arrow," in Martha Warren Beckwith, Myths and Hunting Stories of the Mandan and Hidatsa Sioux‎, Publications of the Folk-Lore Foundation, #10 (Poughkeepsie: Vassar College, 1930) 22-52 [42].
⁴⁰ Timothy P. McCleary, The Stars We Know: Crow Indian Astronomy and Lifeways (Prospect Hills, Illinois: Waveland Press, 1997) 57-62; Plenty Hawk, "1. Spring Boy and Thrown Away," in Robert H. Lowie, "Myths and Traditions of the Crow Indians," Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. 25, part 1 (New York: Trustees of the American Museum of Natural History, 1918) 74-75.
⁴¹ Ronald Goodman, Lakota Star Knowledge: Studies in Lakota Stellar Theology (Rosebud Sioux Reservation: Siñte Gleska University, 1992) 26-27. He mentions a 1986 version by Ollie Napesin which no doubt connects the Hand asterism to the story told in DeMallie. The Sixth Grandfather, Black Elk's Teachings Given to John G. Neihardt, ed. Raymond J. DeMallie (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1984) 404-409.
⁴² Goodman, Lakota Star Knowledge, 22.
⁴³ In a variant of this story, the child's name is Haçouusā, which means "Little Star" or "Star Child." Runs in the Water, "136. The Porcupine and the Woman who Climbed to the Sky," in George A. Dorsey and Alfred L. Kroeber, Traditions of the Arapaho (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997 [1903]) 332-338 [335]. In another variant, the child is called "Moon Child" (Hiiciisisā). Caspar Edson, "137. The Porcupine and the Woman who Climbed to the Sky," in Dorsey and Kroeber, Traditions of the Arapaho, 339. Hiiciis means both "Sun" and "Moon." "138. The Porcupine and the Woman who Climbed to the Sky," in Dorsey and Kroeber, Traditions of the Arapaho, 340-341 [341 nt 1]. Consequently, in one story he is said to be the son of the Sun and called Hiiciisteiā. This same story also calls him Housā, "Porcupine's Son," and even Biaxuyan, "Found in Grass." "138. The Porcupine and the Woman who Climbed to the Sky," in Dorsey and Kroeber, Traditions of the Arapaho, 340-341. George A. Dorsey, The Arapaho Sun Dance: The Ceremony of the Offerings Lodge. Field Museum Anthropological Series (Chicago: the Museum: 1903) 5:212-228; George Lankford, The "Path of Souls": Some Death Imagery in the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex," in Ancient Objects and Sacred Realms: Interpretations of Mississippian Iconography, edd. F. Kent Reilly III and James F. Garber (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2007) 174-212 [198]. There is another version of this story in six variants: Fire Wood, "134. The Porcupine and the Woman who Climbed to the Sky," in Dorsey and Kroeber, Traditions of the Arapaho, 321-329; Long Hair, "135. The Porcupine and the Woman who Climbed to the Sky," in Dorsey and Kroeber, Traditions of the Arapaho, 330-331; Runs in the Water, "136. The Porcupine and the Woman who Climbed to the Sky," in Dorsey and Kroeber, Traditions of the Arapaho, 332-338; Caspar Edson, "137. The Porcupine and the Woman who Climbed to the Sky," in Dorsey and Kroeber, Traditions of the Arapaho, 339; the source of this variant is an old woman of the tribe, "138. The Porcupine and the Woman who Climbed to the Sky," in Dorsey and Kroeber, Traditions of the Arapaho, 340-341. Yet another variant is contained in a footnote: Philip Rapid in Dorsey and Kroeber, Traditions of the Arapaho, 339-340 nt 3.
⁴⁴ Lillian Brave (One Kernel of Corn Woman), "63. Long Teeth and Drinks Brain Soup," in Douglas R. Parks, Traditional Narratives of the Arikara Indians. Volumne 2, Stories of Other Narrators: Interlinear Linguistic Texts. Studies in the Anthropology of North American Indians, 4 vols. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1991) 2:693-715. Other versions of this myth: Ella P. Waters (Yellow Bird Woman), "85. The Star Husband and Old Woman's Grandson," in Parks, Traditional Narratives of the Arikara Indians, 2:889-922. White Bear, "15. The Girl who Married a Star," in George A. Dorsey, Traditions of the Arikara (Washington, D. C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1904) 56-60. For a discussion of the Hand asterism, see George E. Lankford, Reachable Stars: Patterns in the Ethnoastronomy of Eastern North America (Tuscaloosa: The University of Alabama Press, 2007) 226-239.

Stories

The Five Sons of the Primordial God

⁴ Kathleen Danker and Felix White, Sr., The Hollow of Echoes (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1978) 24-25. Informant: Felix White, Sr.
⁵ Norton William Jipson, Story of the Winnebagos (Chicago: The Chicago Historical Society, 1923) 410-411.
⁶ Louis L. Meeker, “Siouan Mythological Tales,” Journal of American Folklore, 14 (1901): 161-164.
⁷ George E. Lankford, Reachable Stars: Patterns in the Ethnoastronomy of Eastern North America (Tuscaloosa: The University of Alabama Press, 2007) 124.
⁸ Historia de los Mexicanos por sus pinturas, 617.
⁹ Annals of Cuauhtitlan, 2:24-2:52, in John Bierhorst, History and Mythology of the Aztecs: the Codex Chimalpopoca (Tucson: The University of Arizona Press, 1992).
¹⁰ Leyenda de los Soles, 75:6-76:17, in John Bierhorst, History and Mythology of the Aztecs: the Codex Chimalpopoca (Tucson: The University of Arizona Press, 1992) 139-162.

The Virgin Birth from a Swallowed Stone

¹ The Annals of Cuauhtitlan, 3:59-4:2, Bierhorst, History and Mythology of the Aztecs, 28.
² Miller and Taube, Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya, 100, s.v. "Itzpapalotl."
³ ," in Robert H. Lowie, Myths and Traditions of the Crow Indians, Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. 25, part 1 (New York: Trustees of the American Museum of Natural History, 1918) 128-133 [130].
⁴ Leyenda de los Soles, 80:50.
⁵ Naopi-sica, "The Stone Boy," in J. R. Walker, "The Sun Dance and Other Ceremonies of the Oglala Division of The Teton Dakota," Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History Vol. XVI, Part II (1917): 194.
⁶ Norton William Jipson, Story of the Winnebagos (Chicago: The Chicago Historical Society, 1923) 409-411 [410].
⁷ Alfred L. Kroeber, Gros Ventre Myths and Tales, Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, Vol. 1, Part 3 (New York: Trustees of the American Museum of Natural History, May, 1907) 98.
⁸ George A. Dorsey and Alfred L. Kroeber, Traditions of the Arapaho (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997 [1903]) 14-15 (Rock); 184-185 (Light Stone).
⁹ James R. Walker, The Sun Dance & Other Ceremonies of the Oglala Division of the Teton Dakota, Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, Vol. 16, Part 2 (New York: Trustees of the American Museum of Natural History, 1917) 194.

The Courtship of the God of the Hunt

¹ Historia de los Mexicanos por sus pinturas, Chapter 7, p. 623. From the same source we learn that one of these women was Coatlicue (Quatlique), Chapter 11, p. 626.
² Historia de los Mexicanos por sus pinturas, Chapter 6, p. 622.
^2.1 Muñoz Camargo, Historia de Tlaxcala (Mexico City: Oficina tip. de la Secretaría de fomento, 1892) 40-41. See also, Seler, Collected Works, 5:53b.
³ Leyenda de los Soles, 80:29-80:49.
⁴ Auh ye no cepa ya in Mixcohuatl ye no cepa quinamiqui, çan no maxauhticac, çan no quiman in chimalli in imiuh. Auh ye no cepa icpacpa quiz in mitl, ihuan ce iyomotlan, ihuan ce quimacuic ihuan inic [nappa] tzallan quiz. Auh niman in ye yuhqui, nima[n] ye iccana, itlan motecac in cihuatl in Huitznahuac, ca yehuatl in Chimalman. Auh niman ye ic otzti. Leyenda de los Soles, 80:44-80:49; Nahuatl text from Walter Lehmann, "Traditions des anciens Mexicains," Journal de la Société des américanistes de Paris, 3, #2 (Oct. 15, 1906): 239-294 [§§74-75, 278-279].
⁵ Paul Radin, "The Dipper," Notebooks, Freeman #3850, 3896, & #3897 (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society) Notebook #50: 198-211.

The Brothers of the God of the Hunt Try to Kill Him

¹ Edouard de Jonghe (ed), "Histoyre du Mechique, manuscrit français inédit du XVIe siècle," Journal de la Société des Américanistes, 2 n.s. (1905): 1-41 [34-35].

The Attack of the Rejected Consort

¹ Leyenda de los Soles, 79:34-80:16 in John Bierhorst, History and Mythology of the Aztecs: the Codex Chimalpopoca (Tucson: The University of Arizona Press, 1992) 151-152.
² The Annals of Cuauhtitlan, 1:10-20, in John Bierhorst, History and Mythology of the Aztecs: the Codex Chimalpopoca (Tucson: The University of Arizona Press, 1992) 23.
³ Paul Radin, "Intcohorúcika," Winnebago Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society) Notebook #14: 1-67.
⁴ Paul Radin, "The Red Man," Winnebago Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society) Notebook 6: 1-72.
⁵ Paul Radin, "The Chief of the Heroka," Winnebago Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, n.d.) Notebook 33: 1-66.
⁶ Paul Radin, Winnebago Hero Cycles: A Study in Aboriginal Literature (Baltimore: Waverly Press, 1948) 134-136.
⁷ P
⁸ P
⁹ P

The Warbundle of Burnt Human Remains

¹ Radin, Winnebago Hero Cycles, 132-134.

The Two-Headed Being, the Talisman of Victory

¹⁰ Historia de los Mexicanos por sus pinturas, 623.
¹¹ Radin, Winnebago Hero Cycles, 123-129. Cf. W. C. McKern, "A Winnebago Myth," Yearbook, Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee, 9 (1929): 215-230.
¹² Robert Small (Otoe, Wolf Clan), and Julia Small (Otoe), "6. Wąkx!istowi, the Man with the Human Head Earrings," Alanson Skinner, "Traditions of the Iowa Indians," The Journal of American Folklore, 38, #150 (October-December, 1925): 427-506 [457].
¹³ Leyenda de los Soles, 80:17-80:28.
¹⁴ Historia de los Mexicanos por sus pinturas, 623.
¹⁵ Radin, Winnebago Hero Cycles, 123-129. Cf. W. C. McKern, "A Winnebago Myth," Yearbook, Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee, 9 (1929): 215-230.
¹⁶ Small and Small, "6. Wąkx!istowi, the Man with the Human Head Earrings," 457.

The God of the Hunt is Avenged by His Son

⁴ Paul Radin, "Redhorn's Nephews," Notebooks, Freeman #3860 (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1908-1913) Winnebago IV, #7a: 1-16 [13-14].
⁵ Leyenda de los Soles, 81:3-81:43.
^5.1 Paul Radin, "Redhorn's Nephews," Notebooks, Freeman #3860 (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1908-1913) Winnebago IV, #7a: 1-16 [12].
⁶ Historia de los Mexicanos por sus pinturas, 621.
⁷ Leyenda de los Soles, 77:32, cf. 77:48-77:52.
⁸ Leyenda de los Soles, 81:32-33.
⁹ Leyenda de los Soles, 81:34-35.

The Departure Scene and the Legacy of the God of the Hunt

¹ Radin, Winnebago Hero Cycles, §11, p. 132.
² The Annals of Cuauhtitlan, 2:56-3:4, in John Bierhorst, History and Mythology of the Aztecs: the Codex Chimalpopoca (Tucson: The University of Arizona Press, 1992) 26-27.
³ Bierhorst, History and Mythology of the Aztecs, 27 nt 16. See the example discussed in Solier, Ancient Mexican Costume, 52-53 and Plate XV; Joyce, Mexican Archaeology, 19 [... ?].
⁴ The Annals of Cuauhtitlan, 25:47, Bierhorst, History and Mythology of the Aztecs, 70.
⁵ The Annals of Cuauhtitlan, 56:20-56:24, Bierhorst, History and Mythology of the Aztecs, 114.
^5.1 Phillips and Brown, Pre-Columbian Shell Engraving, Part 1, 190 Fig. 247.
^5.2 E. K. Burnet, "The Spiro Mound Collection in the Museum," Contributions of the Museum of the American Indian. The Heye Foundation, 14 (1945): 1-47, plates 1-94 [Plate 75]. Phillips and Brown, Pre-Columbian Shell Engraving, Part 1, 192 Fig. 251.
⁶ James A. Brown, The Spiro Ceremonial Center: the Archaeology of Arkansas Valley Caddoan Culture in Eastern Oklahoma, 2 vols. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, #29 (Ann Arbor : Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, 1996) 523b.
⁷ Hamilton, "The Spiro Mound," 34-35. Spectroscopic analysis has yet to be carried out on this artifact — Brown, The Spiro Ceremonial Center, 523b.
⁸ Brown, The Spiro Ceremonial Center, 523b. "Both of the holes interrupt the 'feather' or 'spade' pattern on the blanket without their being a border or rim around the holes. Just such an absence of rim would be consistent with holes drilled after the blanket pattern had been finished."
⁹ It's interesting to note that the pictograph of Mixcoatl at Cerro de la Campana shows him wearing, like Big Boy, a three strand necklace. See Seler, Collected Works, 6:1. Strings of shell wampum beads may also have been given out as "emblems of the rank derived from personal exploits and inherited honor." James Allison Brown and Alice Mossie Brues, The Spiro Ceremonial Center: The Archaeology of Arkansas Valley Caddoan Culture in Eastern Oklahoma, 2 vols. (Ann Arbor: Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, 1996) 265, 270. Duncan and Diaz-Granados, "Of Masks and Myths," 8, 20.
¹⁰ Hamilton, "The Spiro Mound," 34-35. Charles C. Willoughby, "Textile Fabrics from the Spiro Mound," Missouri Archaeologist, 14 (1952) 107-124 [113], comments, "We may be sure that feather garments from capes to long cloaks were not uncommon use throughout the United States from New England to California in early historic days, although but few of them have been preserved. Some of them were not only warm and serviceable, but were beautifully wrought in attractive designs in various colors."
¹¹ Brown, The Spiro Ceremonial Center, 523b.

¹² The diamond inscribed on top of his flat hat could reflect the diamond shape of Orion as it runs from Mintaka at the top, to 311 Orionis, Algiebba, 42 Orionis, ς Orionis, Alnitak, Alnilam, and back to Mintaka. The queue would be formed by the Sword Stars, 42 Orionis, M42, and Nair al Saif. As seen from the back, the queue would hang over the left shoulder. As Orion rises, it is this queue that hangs lowest in the sky and is therefore "red."
¹³ Hamilton, "The Spiro Mound," 35; Brown, The Spiro Ceremonial Center, 523b.
¹⁴ Reilly identifies Redhorn and Morning Star, and thinks that Big Boy is "Morning Star" himself. Reilly, “People of Earth, People of Sky," 132. Brown expresses some reservations about this view. Brown, "The Identity of the Birdman," 99.
¹⁵ Codex Magliabecchiano, 13.3, folio 42r, and Codex Vaticanus B, 70.
¹⁶ Mary Henderson Eastman, Chicóra: and Other Regions of the Conquerors and the Conquered (Philadelphia: Lippincott, Grambo and Co., 1854) 21.
¹⁷ George A. Dorsey, Traditions of the Caddo (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997 [1905]) 33.
¹⁸ Williams & Goggin, "The Long Nosed God Mask in Eastern United States," 35-37, 53. Brown, The Spiro Ceremonial Center, 523a, thinks that the noses are short because of the "limitation the material places on the sculpture."
¹⁹ Brown and Brues, The Spiro Ceremonial Center: The Archaeology of Arkansas Valley Caddoan Culture in Eastern Oklahoma, 529. Duncan and Diaz-Granados, "Of Masks and Myths," 21.
²⁰ John Breck, The Shape of Biblical Language: Chiasmus in the Scriptures and Beyond (Yonkers: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1994).
²¹ Cedric Hubbell Whitman, Homer and the Heroic Tradition (New York: W. W. Norton, 1965).
²² Radin, The Winnebago Tribe, 186-187.
²³ Helmbrecht and Lehmann, 123a, s.v. horušík; Marino-Radin, 153, s.v. ⎷cik > horucik, "to wear in ears." The meaning is attested (Ao ℒo diAi K n K = horušik-anąga, "he wore on his ears, and") in the "Dipper," Paul Radin, "The Dipper," Notebooks, Freeman #3850, 3896, & #3897 (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society) Notebooks #49-50: 1-267 [92] (q.v.); in "Hog's Adventures" (ǧ'eǧ'éra ... horušíkše, "he wore ear-bobs"), Charles Houghton, Untitled, trs. Oliver LaMère, in Paul Radin, Winnebago Notebooks, Freeman #3892 (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society) Winnebago III, #11a: 121-131 [129] (q.v.); (įco nącáwa akiwake horušíkše, "he wore faces on the sides of each ear") Paul Radin, "Intcohorúcika," Winnebago Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society) Notebook #14: 1-67 [3] (q.v.).
²⁴ Marino-Radin, 101; Lipkind; Helmbrecht and Lehmann, 172b, s.v. ru-, "with hands."
²⁵ Marino-Radin, s.v. ⎷cik.
²⁶ Helmbrecht and Lehmann, 24, s.v. ho-, where they say, "This is a grammatical element of the verb unknown in English. In most cases, it can be translated as 'in something' or 'into something'."
²⁷ The raconteur says, Horúšikra-šgé rohą́xjį hanį́kareže, "He also took back a lot of wampum with him" RS [Rueben StCyr ?], "Snowshoe Strings," in Paul Radin, Winnebago Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society) Notebook #60: 4-33 [21] (q.v.).
²⁸ Helmbrecht and Lehmann, 218a, s.v. woorúšik. So too in Miner. This is also attested in earlier works. In "Morning Star and his Friend," worúšigenàñka, is translated as "the earbobs." John Harrison, The Giant or The Morning Star, translated by Oliver LaMere, in Paul Radin, Winnebago Notebooks, Freeman #3892 (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society) Winnebago III, #11a, Story 8: 92-117 [112] (q.v.).
²⁹ RS [Rueben StCyr ?], "Snowshoe Strings," 4-33 [16-17] (q.v.).
³⁰ James Owen Dorsey, Winnebago-English Vocabulary and Winnebago Verbal Notes, 4800 Dorsey Papers: Winnebago (3.3.2) 321 [old no. 1226] (Washington: Smithsonian Institution, National Anthropological Archives, 1888) 82 pp.
³¹ Merrell, Henry. "Winnebago Dictionary." Merrell (1804-1876), a fur trader at Portage, created this list in the 1830s for his personal use; his manuscript was loaned to the Wisconsin Historical Society in 1899 so this 20-page typed copy could be made; the location of the original manuscript is not known. In US Mss 6F, folder 1. The meaning "wampum," is attested by both Foster (q.v.) and Dorsey.
³² Dorsey, Winnebago-English Vocabulary and Winnebago Verbal Notes.
³³ In addition, the same meaning is given to woru-shik in Jipson's dictionary. Norton William Jipson, Story of the Winnebagoes (Chicago: The Chicago Historical Society, 1923).
³⁴ Small white and purple wampum beads are worn by a Secotan on his ears. David I. Bushnell, Jr., "The Origin of Wampum," The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, 36 (Jan. - June, 1906): 172-177 [174, post 176 Plate XVII, fig. 1].
³⁵ "... although they be thus poore, yet is there in them the ſparkes of naturall pride, which appeares in their their longing deſire after many kinde of ornaments, wearing pendants in their eares, as formes of birds, beaſts, and fiſhes, carved out of bone, ſhels, and ſtone, with long bracelets of their curious wrought wampompeage and mowhackees, which they put about their necks and loynes; theſe they count a rare kinde of decking ..." William Wood, Wood's New-England's Prospect, Volume 131 of Burt Franklin Research & Source Works Series. Publications of the Prince Society, Boston Prince Society (Boston: B. Franklin, 1865) 73-74. William H. Holmes, Art in Shell of the Ancient Americans. Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Issue 2 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1883) 179-305 [256-257]. Verna L. Cowin, "Shell Ornaments from Cayuga County, New York," Archaeology of Eastern North America, 28 (2000): 1-13 [8].
³⁶ Radin, Winnebago Tribe, 119 nt. 4.

The Son of the God of the Hunt Recreates Humans from Their Powdered Bones

⁰ I subsequently discovered that Hall had independently noticed these correspondences years earlier. He says,

Note here that the two sons of Red Horn, half-brothers, recovered the bones of their father and of all the dead villagers and restored them to life after grinding them to a powder. This should remind us of the familiar Mexican myth of Quetzalcoatl and his nahual or twin or spirit double who entered the Underworld and recovered the bones of Aztecs who had perished with the end of the Fourth Sun. They then had these bones ground into a powder and restored to life as the first Aztecs of the Fifth Sun. Quetzalcoatl's twin was Xolotl, and Quetzalcoatl and Xolotl were manifestations of Venus as the morning star and evening star. Quetzalcoatl was also a long-nosed god.

Robert L. Hall, "The Cultural Background of Mississippian Symbolism," in The Southeastern Ceremonial Complex: Artifacts and Analysis. The Cottonlandia Conference. Ed. Patricia Galloway (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989) 239-278 [243].
¹ León-Portilla has "precious vessel of clay." Miguel León-Portilla, Aztec Thought and Culture: A Study of the Ancient Nahuatl Mind, trs. Jack Emory Davis (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1963) 108.
² Histoyre du Mechique, 26-27. Here is my translation of this passage: "(26) All this having been done, the gods Tezcatlipuca and Ehecatl deliberated on making people to possess the earth, and immediately saying it, Ehecatl descended into the underworld in order to demand from Mitlantentli the ashes of the dead in order to create other human beings, of which the god of the underworld presented only a bone of the length of an ell and some ashes. And no sooner had he presented the bone than he repented greatly, for it was of all things, that which he wished the most to have, and for this reason followed Ehecatl in order to take back the bone; but Ehecatl fleeing, dropped the bone on the ground and it broke itself, for which reason humans emerged short; for, they say that (27) men of the first world had been as large as giants; he therefore carried the rest of the bone and the ashes and put them in a paztli (vase), in the which he summoned all the other gods that they might create the first man, for which they assembled themselves, sacrificing from their own tongues, and so commenced the first day of the creation of man, the forming of his body, which animated itself immediately, and, on the fourth day, having made the man and the woman; but they did not make them very large right away, otherwise being in accord with the natural course of things."
³ Leyenda de los Soles, 76.18-77.2. For a commentary on this myth, see León-Portilla, Aztec Thought and Culture, 107-111.
⁴ §11 of the Redhorn Cycle.
⁵ Paul Radin, "Redhorn's Nephews," Notebooks, Freeman #3860 (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1908-1913) Winnebago IV, #7a: 1-16 [11-14].
^5.1 Joaquín García Icazbalceta, Nueva colleccíon de documentos para la historia de México (Mexico City: Francisco Diaz de Leon, 1891) 3:237, 239. Seler, Collected Works, 3:274.
⁶ Seler, Collected Works, 5:263b-266b.

The God of the Hunt's Child Commits Incest

¹ Annals of Cuauhtitlan, 6:13-8:4.
² Paul Radin, "The Red Man," Winnebago Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society) Notebook 6: 1-72.
³ George A. Dorsey and Alfred L. Kroeber, Traditions of the Arapaho (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997 [1903]) 188-189.
⁶ Miller and Taube, Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya, 138a, s.v. pulque, say that Quetzalcoatl "slept with his sister while in a drunken stupor." The only text that seems to suggest this is the Annals of Cuauhtitlan, 6:39-6:52. There it says that they got drunk together, and Aoctle quichïuhqueh in tlahuizcalpan, "They did nothing till dawn" (Jordan), or "From then on they did nothing at daybreak" (Bierhorst). The Nahuatl text is from the website of David K. Jordan, "The Death of Quetzalcöätl," 48-D, viewed November 1, 2010. For a closer look at this story, see the Appendix.
⁷ Radin, Winnebago Tribe, 85.

The Waterspirits Steal the Food from the Son of the God of the Hunt

¹ Leyenda de los Soles, 77:3-77:26. The primary versions of the Hidden Corn Myth are shown in John Bierhorst, The Mythology of Mexico and Central America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002) 89.
² Paul Radin, "The Chief of the Heroka," Winnebago Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, n.d.) Notebook 33: 1-66. See "The Chief of the Heroka."
³ The Shipibo see Orion as a tinamou whose leg was bitten off by a pursuing cayman. Peter G. Roe, "Mythic Substitution and the Stars: Aspects of Shipibo and Quechua Ethnoastronomy Compared" in Songs from the Sky: Indigenous Astronomical and Cosmological Traditions of the World. Ed. Von Del Chamberlain, John B. Carlson and M. Jane Young (Bognor Regis: Ocarina Books / Center for Archaeoastronomy, 2005) 206a, 212a.

The Slain Giant

¹ Paul Radin, "Wears White Feather on His Head," Winnebago Notebooks (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society) Notebook #4: 1-50.
² Leyenda de los Soles, 81:51-82:9, in Bierhorst, History and Mythology of the Aztecs, 155-156.

Conclusions and Reconstructions

³ Annals of Cuauhtitlan, 1:17-18.
⁴ Martha Warren Beckwith, "Mythology of the Oglala Dakota," The Journal of American Folklore, 43 (1930), #170 (October-December.): 339-442 [386-389].

APPENDIX

Paradise Lost

See Notes to Paradise Lost

Archaeology

Other Mississippian Raptors

¹¹³ Ill-Pe-X1, from a mound near Peoria, Illinois. Brain and Phillips, Shell Gorgets, 370. William H. Holmes, "Eccentric Figures from Southern Mounds," Science, 3, #62 (April 11, 1884): 436-438 [438b fig. 6]. Thomas, Report on the Mound Explorations of the Bureau of Ethnology, 309 fig. 192; Wilson, The Swastika, 889 fig. 243, copper plate repoussé, Cat. no. 91507, NMNH. Thruston, The Antiquities of Tennessee and the Adjacent States, 334 fig. 343. Shown also in Willoughby, "Notes on the History and Symbolism of the Muskhogeans and the People of Etowah," 22 fig. 8c; and Fundaburk and Foreman, Sun Circles and Human Hands, plate 49c. This is Ill-Pe-X1, Brain and Phillips, Shell Gorgets, 368 Table 25, 370; cf. Ga-Brt-E20, Brain and Phillips, Shell Gorgets, 135, 370.
¹¹⁴ Cade describes the upright threat display this way,

Whether a potential predator or a conspecific, all falcons employ an Upright Threat display, in which the bird orients its body vertically, spreads its tail, holds it wings out from the body, and fluffs out its feathers to the maximum extent, especially those on the breast, cheeks, naps, and crown. The bird hisses and cackles and strikes out with its feet or its beak.

Tom J. Cade and R. David Digby, The Falcons of the World (Ithaca: Comstock/Cornell University Press, 1982) 40; Roland H. Wauer, The American Kestrel: Falcon of Many Names (Neenah: Big Earth Publishing, 2005) 48. The "tooth" in the upper bill distinctive to falcons is shown in red.

William Robert Ogilvie-Grant, Guide to the Gallery of Birds in the Department of Zoology of the British Museum (London: Printed by order of the Trustees [by] Taylor and Francis], 1905) 208 fig. 8.
¹¹⁵ Burns, Osage Indian Customs and Myths, 159 fig. 15; 166.
¹¹⁶ But if we count the black stripes, there are 3 x 4 = 12, a repetition of the number of moons in a year. A more exotic possibility is that the number 9 represents moons (in keeping with the lunar theme), in which case 9 x 29.53 = 265.77, an approximation to the 260 day tonalpohualli calendar, just as 30 x 12 could represent the xiuhpohualli calendar. It should be stressed that there is no evidence for this one way or the other, but is presented as an interesting possibility consistent with the data.
¹¹⁷ Bailey, The Osage and the Invisible World, 32, cp. 33 fig. 3.1.
¹¹⁸ Colors and trees are associated with the six directions by Philip Longtail of the Hocąk Buffalo Clan. James Owen Dorsey, "Miscellaneous Winnebago Notes from Phillip Longtail, 1893 " (Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution, National Anthropological Archives) 4800 Dorsey Papers: Winnebago 3.3.2 [325]. Earthmaker gives Spider six additional eyes "one eye for each of the four directions and one eye for each of the other directions." Joi StCyr, "Why Spider has Eight Eyes," in David Lee Smith, Folklore of the Winnebago Tribe (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1997) 96. For the Lakota, see Goodman, Lakota Star Knowledge, 32-33.
¹¹⁹ Goodman, Lakota Star Knowledge, 17, 33.
¹²⁰ Duncan and Carol Diaz-Granados, "Empowering the SECC: The 'Old Woman' and Oral Tradition," 211.
¹²¹ For this ritual, see Bailey, The Osage and the Invisible World, 216-218.
¹²² Bailey, The Osage and the Invisible World, 217 Song.
¹²³ "These are not real birds, but they are symbols." Bailey, The Osage and the Invisible World, 140.
¹²⁴ Bailey, The Osage and the Invisible World, 50, 66, 134, 166, 190, 214, 218, 219, 221.
¹²⁵ Bailey, The Osage and the Invisible World, 134.
¹²⁶ Bailey, The Osage and the Invisible World, 50.
¹²⁷ Bailey, The Osage and the Invisible World, 216.
¹²⁸ Paul Radin, The Winnebago Tribe (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990 [1923]) 161 nt. 1.
¹²⁹ Willoughby, "Notes on the History and Symbolism of the Muskhogeans and the People of Etowah," 24 fig. 9, 26 fig. 10; Fundaburk and Foreman, Sun Circles and Human Hands, plate 31.
¹³⁰ Willoughby, "Notes on the History and Symbolism of the Muskhogeans and the People of Etowah," 20 fig. 7; Fundaburk and Foreman, Sun Circles and Human Hands, plate 31.

Cuts

⁹⁵ Susan Milbrath, Star Gods of the Maya: Astronomy in Art, Folklore, and Calendars (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1999) 252h.
⁹⁶ Thomas F. Kehoe and Alice B. Kehoe, Solstice-aligned Boulder Configurations in Saskatchewan. Canadian Ethnology Service, Mercury Series, Paper 48 (Ottawa: National Museum of Man, 1979) 25; David Vogt, "Medicine Wheel Astronomy," in Clive N. Ruggles and Nicholas J. Saunders (edd.), Astronomies and Cultures (Niwot: University of Colorado Press, 1993) 163-201 [174].
⁹⁷ Anthony F. Aveni, Skywatchers (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2001) 37; Barbara Tedlock, The Road of Light: Theory and Practice of Maya Skywatching, in Anthony Aveni (ed), The Sky in Mayan Literature (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992) 18-42 [29].
⁹⁸ Radin, "Intcohorúcika," 12-14.
¹⁰⁶ Eduard Seler, Collected Works in Mesoamerican Linguistics and Archaeology (English Translations of German Papers from Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur Amerikanischen Sprach- und Alterthumskunde), J. Eric S. Thompson and Francis B. Richardson, edd., 2d ed. (Lancaster, California: Labyrinthos, 1996) 5:41.
¹⁰⁷ Seler, Collected Works, 5:45b.
¹⁰⁸ Seler, Collected Works, 5:45.
¹⁰⁹ Seler, Collected Works, 5:41.
¹¹⁰ Annals of Cuauhtitlan, 1:7, cf. 3:27; Michel Graulich, "Las Peregrinaciones Aztecas y el Ciclo de Mixcóatl," Estudios de Cultura Náhuatl, 11 (1974): 311-354 [327].
¹¹¹ Lankford.